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1、 Unit 1 Language and Language Learning Aims of the unit In this unit we will discuss some general matters about language learning and teaching. We are going to discuss five questions on particular: 1. How do we learn language? 2. What are the common views on language? 3. What are the commo

2、n views on language learning? 4. What are the qualities of a good language teacher? 5. How can one become a good language teacher? 1.1 How do we learn languages? Mach of human behavior is influenced by their experiences. The way language teachers teach in the classroom is to some extent influe

3、nced by the way they learned languages. This is especially true in foreign language teaching. Before we discuss language learning theories, let us first reflect on our own language learning experience. Task 1 Below is a list of interview questions on how people learn a foreign language. In the f

4、irst column, write down your own responses. Then interview three other students in your class and enter their responses in the other columns. Discuss your findings in group of 4 and draw some conclusion. You ST1 ST2 ST3 1. How many foreign languages can you speak so far? 2. When did yo

5、u start learning the foreign language(s)? 3. How do you feel about learning a foreign language? 4. What difficulties have you experienced in learning? 5. Which skill do you find more difficult to learn? 6. Have you focused on knowledge or skills? Why? 7.

6、Why do you learn the foreign language(s)? 8. Do you consider yourself a successful learner? Why? 9. What are your most common learning activities? 10. Do you like the way you learned the foreign language(s)? From the above task, you may have found that 1) people

7、 started learning a foreign language at different ages; 2) people have different experiences in learning a foreign language, some find it easy, some find it difficult; 3) people learn languages for different reasons; 4) people learn languages in different ways; 5) people have different understanding

8、s about language learning; 6) people have different capacities in language learning; 7) learning can be affected by the way it is taught; 8) learning is affected by the degree of success one is expected to achieve; and more. Thus the challenge confronting language teaching is how teaching methodolog

9、y can ensure successful learning by all the learners who have more differences than the commonality. 1.2 views on language The question that all approaches to language teaching should answer is, ‘what is language?’ The answer to this question is the basis for syllabus designs, teaching methodolo

10、gy, teaching and assessment procedures in the classroom. Different views on language generate different teaching methodologies. Task 2 Work in group of 4. Brainstorm possible answer to the question: what is language? When you are ready, join another group and share your ideas. To give a con

11、cise definition of language has always been difficult for linguists and philogists. Although there has been an enormous amount of research in language in the past century, no authoritative answer has been given to ‘what is language?’ rather, people have settle down to talk about views of language, s

12、eemingly allowing for or accepting different theories for the moment. However, language teachers clearly need to know generally what sort of entity they are dealing with and how the particular language they are teaching fits into that entity (Brown, 1994a). for sample definition of ‘language’ , ple

13、ase refer to Appendix 1. Structural view The structural view of language sees language as a linguistic system made up of various subsystems (Larsen-Freeman & Long, 1991): the sound system (phonology); the discrete units of meaning produced by sound combinations (morphology), and the system of co

14、mbining units of meaning for communication (syntax). Each language has a finite number of such structural items. To learn a language means to learn these structural items so as to be able to understand and produce language. When this structural view of language was combined with the stimulus-respons

15、e principles of behaviorist psychology, the audio-lingual approach to language learning emerged. Functional view In the 1960s, British linguists developed a system of categories based on the communicative needs of the learner (Johnson and Marrow, 1981) and proposed a syllabus based on communic

16、ative functions. The functional view not only sees languages as a linguistic system but also a means for doing things. Most of our day-to-day language use involves functional activities: offering, suggesting, advising, apologizing, etc. therefore, learners learn a language in order to be able to do

17、with it. In order to perform functions, learners need to know how to combine the grammatical rules and the vocabulary to express notions that perform the functions. Examples of notions are the concept of present, past and future time, the expressions of certainty and possibility, the roles of agents

18、, instruments with a sentence, and special relationships between people and objects. Interactional view The interactional view considers language to be a communicative tool, whose main use is to build up and maintain social relations between people. Therefore, learners not only need to know the

19、grammar and vocabulary of the language but as importantly they need to know the rules for using them in a whole range of communicative contexts. These three views present an ever wider view of language. The structural view limits knowing a language to knowing its structural rules and vocabulary.

20、The communicative or notional-functional view adds the need to know how to use the rules and vocabulary to do whatever it is one wants to do. The interactional view says that to know how to do what you want to do involves also knowing whether it is appropriate to do, and where, when and how it is ap

21、propriate to do it. In order to know this, you have to study the patterns and rules of language above the sentence level to learn how language is used in different speech contexts. The understanding of the nature of language may provide the basis for a particular teaching method (Richard and Rodg

22、ers, 1986), but more importantly, it is closely related to the understanding of language learning. If language is considered to have a finite number of structural items, learning the language probably means learning these items. If language is more than just a system of structures, it is more import

23、antly a tool then to learn the language learning. If language is more than just a system of structures, it is more importantly a tool, then to learn the language means to use it, rather than just study what it is and how it is formed. The next section discusses some current theories about language l

24、earning. 1.3 Views on Language learning and learning in general A language learning theory underlying an approach or method usually answers two questions; 1) What are the psycholinguistic and cognitive processes involved in language learning? 2) What are the conditions that need to be met in ord

25、er for these learning processes to be activated? Task3 Work in groups of 4. Brainstorm the answers to the two questions stated above. When you are ready, join another group and share your ideas. Although these two questions have never been satisfactorily answered, a vast amount of research

26、 has been done from all aspects. The research can be broadly divided into process-oriented theories and condition-oriented theories. Process-oriented theories are concerned with how the mind organizes new information such as habit formation, induction, making inference, hypothesis testing and genera

27、lization. Condition-oriented theories emphasize the nature of the human and physical context in which language learning takes place, such as the number of students, the kind of input learners receive, and the atmosphere. Some researchers attempt to formulate teaching approaches directly from these

28、theories. For example, the Natural Approach, Total Physical Response, and the Silent Way are based on one or more dimensions of processes and conditions. At this level, it is too early to formulate a specific approach, because some aspects are still too vague, for example, what is done in these proc

29、esses. Behaviorist theory The behaviorist theory of language learning was initiated by behavioural psychologist Skinner, who applied Watson and Raynor’s theory of conditioning to the way human acquire language (Harmer, 1983). Based on their experiments, Watson and Raynor formulated a stimulus-re

30、sponse theory of psychology. In this theory all complex forms of behavior—motions, habits and such—are seen as composed of simple muscular and glandular elements that can be observed and measured. They claimed that emotional reactions are learned in much the same way as other skills. The key point o

31、f the theory of conditioning is that ‘you can train an animal to do anything (within reason) if you follow a certain procedure which has three major stages, stimulus, response, and reinforcement’ (Harmer, 1983:30). Based on the theory of conditioning, Skinner suggested that language is also a for

32、m of behavior. It can be learned the same way as an animal is trained to respond to stimuli. This theory of learning is referred to as behaviorism, which was adopted for some time by the language teaching profession, particularly in the U.S. One influential result is the audio-lingual method, which

33、involves endless’ listen and repeat’ drilling activities. The idea of this method is that language is learned by constant repetition and the reinforcement of the teacher. Mistakes were immediately corrected, and correct utterances were immediately praised. This method is still used in many parts of

34、the world today. Cognitive theory The term cognitivism is often used loosely to describe methods in which students are asked to think rather than simply repeat. It seems to be largely the result of Noam Chomsky’s reaction to Skinner’s behaviorist theory, which led to the revival of structural li

35、nguistics. The key point of Chomsky’s theory is reflected in his most famous question: if all language is a learned behavior, how can a child produce a sentence that never been said by others before? According to Chomsky, language is not a form of behavior, it is an intricate rule-based system an

36、d a large part of language acquisition is the learning of this system. There are a finite number of grammatical rules in the system and with a knowledge of these an infinite number of sentences can be produced. A language learner acquires language competence which enables him to produce language.

37、 Though Chomsky’s theory is not directly applied in language teaching, it has had a great impact on the profession. One influential idea is that students should be allowed to create their own sentences based on their understanding of certain rules. This idea is clearly in opposition to the audio-li

38、ngual method. Although people are pretty much still in the dark as to what language is and how language is learned, it is believed that general knowledge about language and language learning will help language teachers do a better job. Constructivist theory The constructivist theory believes

39、 that learning is a process in which the learner constructs meaning based on his/her own experiences and what he/she already knows. Although constructivist theory was not developed for the understanding of language learning, it is widely applicable to learning in general. It is believed that educati

40、on is used to develop the mind, not just to rote recall what is learned. John Dewey provided a foundation for constructivism. He believed that teaching should be built based on what learners already knew and engage learners in learning activities. Teachers need to design environments and interact wi

41、th learners to foster inventive, creative, critical learners. Therefore, teachers must balance an understanding of the habits, characteristics as well as personalities of individual learners with an understanding of the means of arousing learner’s interests and curiosity for learning (Archambault, 1

42、964). Socio-constructivist theory Similar to constructivist theory, socio-constructivist theory represented by Vygotsky (1978) emphasizes interaction and engagement with the target language in a social context based on the concept of ‘Zone of Proximal Development’ (ZPD) and scaffolding. In other

43、 words, learning is best achieved through the dynamic interaction between the teacher and the learner and between learners. With the teacher’s scaffolding through questions and explanations, or with a more capable peer’s support, the learner can move to a higher level of understanding and extend his

44、/her skills and knowledge and knowledge to the fullest potential. 1.4 What makes a good language teacher? Some people with an excellent command of a foreign language may not be able to teach the language well while others with a general command of the language can teach it very effectively. What

45、 do you think might account for this phenomenon? Task 4 Work in groups. Reflect on your own learning experience from early school years to the university. Have you had an excellent English teacher? Try to identify as many qualities as possible of your best English teacher(s). Note down all the

46、qualities that you think are important for a good English teacher. It is clear that whether someone can become a good foreign language teacher does not solely depend on his\her command of the language. There are a variety of elements that contributes to the qualities of a good language teacher.

47、 These elements can be categorized into three groups: ethic devotion, professional qualities and personal styles (Parrot, 1993). Task 5 Ethic devotion, professional qualities and personal styles jointly contribute to the making of a good English teacher. All the adjectives in the box below coul

48、d be used to characterize these three aspects. 1. Work in groups of 4 and decide which adjectives describe ethic devotion, which describe personal styles and which describe professional qualities. Please write your answers on a separate piece of paper. 2. Add any adjectives to the list which des

49、cribe further qualities that you feel are missing. 3. These adjectives are intended to describe positive qualities or styles. Do you feel that any of them could have a negative side as well? If yes, in what way? For example, an authoritative teacher may make the students feel assured, but may also

50、make the student less free to disagree with him\her. kind dynamic authoritative hardworking creative patient well-informed fair resourceful attentive warm-hearted reflective well-prepared flexible

51、 intuitive accurate enthusiastic humorous caring disciplined professionally-trained (Adapted from Tasks for Language Teachers, Martin Parrot, 1993) From the above activities we can see that a good English teacher should have ethic

52、 devotion, certain desirable personal styles, and more importantly, he or she should have necessary professional qualities. These three aspects constitute the professional competence of a good English teacher. A person who has a good command of English is not necessarily a good teacher because he ha

53、s only one of the elements of professional competence. It is assumed that all responsible English teachers have ethic devotion, and they are supposed to make their personal styles compatible with their work. These two aspects, which are beyond the scope of this book, can be achieved as long as th

54、e teacher himself\herself has the willingness to do so. A question that many teachers often ask is: I like my job, and I love the students, but how can I become a good English teacher? Our answer is that they need professional competence, which we are going to discuss in the next section. 1.5

55、How can one become a good language teacher? The most important and most difficult part of the making of a good language teacher is the development of professional competence, which is the state or quality of being adequately qualified for the profession, and armed with a specific range of skills, s

56、trategies, knowledge, and ability. Task 6 Work in pairs and discuss how one can become a professionally competent teacher of English. For example, we have to develop our English proficiency first and also we may need to learn from experienced teachers through observations. What else can you thin

57、k of? Make a list and then pool all your ideas together to find out about your common beliefs. A language teacher’s professional competence is much more difficult than a driver’s skill to handle a car, and is more complicated than a student’s competence of speaking foreign language. It involves m

58、ore factors and longer learning time, and may never be finished. Some people think teaching is a craft; that is, a novice teacher can learn the profession by imitating the experts’ techniques, just like an apprentice. Others hold the view that teaching is an applied science, based on scientific k

59、nowledge and experimentation. By making a compromise between these two views, Wallace (1991) uses a “reflective model” to demonstrate the development of professional competence. The following model is an adapted version to illustrate the process of becoming a professionally competent teacher. Fig

60、ure 1.1 Teacher’s professional development (Adapted from Wallace, 1991:15) From the above model, we can see the development of professional competence for a language teacher involves Stage 1, Stage 2 and Goal. The first stage is language development. All English teachers are supposed to have a s

61、ound command of English. As language is the subject matter for language teachers and also because language is always changing, language development can never come to an end. The second stage is the most crucial stage and it is more complicated because it involves three sub-stages: learning, pract

62、ice, and reflection. The learning stage is actually the purposeful preparation that a language teacher normally receives before he\she starts the practice of teaching. This preparation can include: 1. learning from others’ experiences (empirical knowledge gained through reading and observations)

63、 2. learning the received knowledge (language learning theories, educational psychology, language teaching methodology, etc.) 3. learning from one’s own experiences as a learner Both experiential knowledge (others’ and one’s own) and received knowledge are useful when a teacher goes to practice

64、. This is the combination of ‘craft’ and ‘a(chǎn)pplied science’ knowledge. The learning stage is followed by practice. The term ‘practice’ can be used in two senses. In one sense, it is a short period of time assigned to do teaching practice as part of one’s pre-service education, usually under the super

65、vision of instructors. This practice is also called pseudo practice. The other sense of ‘practice’ is the real classroom teaching that a teacher undertakes after he/she finishes formal education. Teachers benefit from practice if they keep on reflecting on what they have been doing (Stanely, 1999

66、). It should be noted that teachers reflect on their work not only after they finish a certain period of practice, but also while they are doing the practice. When the would-be teachers(trainees) are doing pseudo practice, they are often trying out ideas that they have learned in a methodology class. Therefore, they are likely to reflect on how well a certain idea or technique works and often their instructors may require them to do so. The pseudo practice is beneficial only if the student t