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1、單擊此處編輯母版標(biāo)題樣式,,單擊此處編輯母版文本樣式,,第二級,,第三級,,第四級,,第五級,,,*,Chapter 5 Semantics,,Semantics----the study of language meaning.,,,What is meaning?---- Scholars under different scientific backgrounds have different understandings of language meaning.,,Some views concerning the study of meaning,,Naming theory (P

2、lato) （命名論）,,The conceptualist view （概念觀）,,Contextualism (Bloomfield) （語境論）,,Behaviorism （行為主義）,,Naming theory (Plato),Words are,names or labels for things.,,Limitations:,,1) Applicable to nouns only.,,2) There are nouns which denote things that do not exist in the real world, e.g. ghost, dragon,

3、phoenix…,,3) There are nouns that do not refer to physical objects but abstract notions, e.g. joy, impulse, hatred…,,The conceptualist view,The conceptualist view holds that there is no direct link between a linguistic form and what it refers to (i.e. between language and the real world); rather,,in

4、 the interpretation of meaning they are linked through the mediation（對概念的綜合理解及分析） of concepts in the mind.,,,Ogden,['?:gd?n],,and Richards: semantic triangle,Symbol/form:,,words/phrases/sentences,Referent（指示物）: object in the world of experience,Thought/reference(所指):concepts in mind,The symbol or a

5、word signifies things by virtue of,（依靠）,the concept associated with the form of the word in the minds of the speaker; and the concept looked at from this point of view is the meaning of the word.,,The contextualism （語境理論）,Meaning should be studied in terms of situation, use, context—elements closel

6、y linked with language behavior.,Two types of contexts are recognized:,,Situational context: spatiotemporal（時空的） situation.,,Linguistic context: the probability of a word’s,,co-occurrence or collocation.,,For example, “black” in,black,hair,&,black,sheep（害群之馬）,differs in meaning;,“the president of th

7、e United States”,can mean either the president or presidency in different situation.,,Behaviorism,,Behaviorists attempted to define meaning as,“the situation in which the speaker utters it and the response it calls forth（,引出）,in the hearer”.,,The story of Jack and Jill:,,,Jill

8、 Jack,,S_________r---------------s_________R,,,(physical stimulus) (verbal response) (verbal stimulus) (non-verbal response),,(wants the apple) (speaks to Jack) (hears) (gives Jill),,Lexical meaning,,Sense and reference are both concerned with the study of word meaning.

9、They are two related but different aspects of meaning.,,Sense(意義),,reference(語義),,Sense---- is concerned with the inherent meaning of the linguistic form. It is the collection of all the features of the linguistic form; it is abstract and de-contextualized. It is the aspect of meaning,dictionary,com

10、pilers are interested in. For example, the word,,“dog”is given the definition “a domesticated(,馴化的,) canine,（,犬牙）,mammal, occurring in many breeds(,一胎多仔）,that show a great variety in size and form”.,,This doesn't refer to any particular dog that exist in the real world,but applies to any animal tha

11、t meets the features described in the definition. So this is the sense of the word “dog”.,,Reference----what a linguistic form refers to in the real, physical world; it deals with,the relationship between the linguistic element and the non-linguistic world of experience,. If we say “The dog is barki

12、ng”, we must be talking about a certain dog existent in the situation; the word “dog” refers to a dog known to both the speaker and the hearer. This is the reference of the word “dog” in this particular situation.,,,Note,Linguistic forms having the same sense may have different references in differe

13、nt situations; on the other hand, there are also occasions, when linguistic forms with the same reference might differ in sense, e.g.,the,,morning star,,and,the evening star,,,rising sun,in the morning and,the sunset,at dusk.,,,*Venus 金星,,在西邊時是evening star 長庚星,,在東邊時是morning star 啟明星,,Major sense

14、relations,Synonymy,[,s?'nɑn?m?,],(,同義現(xiàn)象,),,,Antonymy,,[',?nt?,n?mi,],,（,反義現(xiàn)象）,,Polysemy,,[',pɑl?,sim?,],（多義現(xiàn)象）,,,Homonymy,[,ho‘mɑn?m?,],,（同音,/,形異義現(xiàn)象）,,Hyponymy,[,hai'pɑnimi,],,（,下義關(guān)系）,,Synonymy,[s?'nɑn?m?],Synonymy refers to the sameness or close similarity of meaning. Words that are close in meanin

15、g are called synonyms.,,,1) Dialectal synonyms['s?n?,n?m]? ---- synonyms used in different regional dialects,,e.g. autumn - fall, biscuit - cracker, petrol – gasoline…,,,2) Stylistic synonyms----synonyms differing in style,,e.g. kid, child, offspring; start, begin, commence;…,,,3) Synonyms that diff

16、er in their emotive or evaluative meaning,,（合作者）accomplice（幫兇）,…,,4) Collocational（搭配的） synonyms,,e.g. accuse…of（控告）, charge…with, rebuke（ 譴責(zé)）…for; …,,5) Semantically different synonyms, e.g. amaze（suggesting confusing and bewilderment）, astound (suggesting difficulty in believing),…,,Antonymy,['?nt

17、?,n?m],,Gradable,（,分級）,antonyms----there are often intermediate forms between the two members of a pair, e.g.,old-young, hot-cold, tall-short, …,,,Complementary,（,互補）,antonyms----the denial of one member of the pair implies the assertion of the other, e.g.,alive-dead,,,male-female, …,,Relational,（,關(guān)

18、系）,opposites----exhibits the reversal of the relationship between the two items, e.g.,husband-wife, father-son, doctor-patient, buy-sell, let-rent, employer-employee, give-receive, above-below, …,,Polysemy,['pɑl?,sim?],,Polysemy,----the same one word may have more than one meaning, e.g. “table” may

19、mean:,,A piece of furniture,（,餐桌）,,All the people seated at a table,（,坐同一桌的人）,,The food that is put on a table,（,餐食，伙食）,,A thin flat piece of stone, metal, wood, etc.,（板）,,Orderly arrangement of facts, figures, etc.,（,表格）,,,……,,,Homonymy,[ho‘mɑn?m?],Homonymy---- the phenomenon that words having diff

20、erent meanings have the same form, e.g. different words are identical in,sound,or,spelling,, or in both.,,Homophone （同音詞）---- when two words are identical in sound, e.g.,rain-reign, night/knight, …,,Homogragh（同形詞） ---- when two words are identical in spelling, e.g.,tear(n.)-tear(v.), lead(n.)-lead(v

21、.), …,,Complete homonym（同音/形詞）---- when two words are identical in both sound and spelling, e.g. means,,ball, bank, watch, scale, fast, …,,Note:,A polymeric （聚合的）word is the result of the evolution of the primary meaning of the word (the etymology（語源學(xué)）of the word) e.g. table; while complete homonyms

22、 are often brought into being by coincidence（巧合）, e.g. ball（球） --- ball （舞會）.,,* Ambiguity & Punning,,Ambiguity refers to expressions having more than one meaning which occur without any special intention.,,,Punning is to play on words for a witty or humorous effect by using homonyms(同音同形異義詞), homop

23、hones(同音異形異義詞) or,Polysems（多義詞）,.,,Ambiguity,,1. The students complained to everyone that they couldn't understand.,,2. The dog is too hot to eat.,,3. Flying planes can be dangerous.,,4. The fat manager's wife is fond of shopping,,5. He did not leave home because he was afraid of his wife.,,,1. The

24、students complained to everyone that they couldn't understand.,,a. 學(xué)生向所有人抱怨他們無法理解,,b.學(xué)生向所有無法理解的人抱怨,,2. The dog is too hot to eat.,,a. 狗熱到吃不下東西.,,b. 狗肉太熱讓人沒辦法吃,,3. Flying planes can be dangerous.,,a. 正在飛的飛機很危險,,b. 飛飛機會很危險（開飛機或飛紙飛機）,,4. The fat manager's wife is fond of shopping,,a. 那個胖經(jīng)理的妻子愛購物（經(jīng)理胖）,,

25、b. 那個胖胖的經(jīng)理夫人愛購物（經(jīng)理夫人胖）,,5. He did not leave home because he was afraid of his wife.,,a. 他不是因為怕媳婦兒才離開的家,,b. 他因為怕媳婦兒，不敢離開家,,,1.這份報告，我寫不好。,,a.這份報告，我沒能力寫好。,,b.這份報告，我來寫不適合。,,2.大家對護(hù)林員揭發(fā)林業(yè)局帶頭偷運木料的問題，普遍感到非常氣憤。,,a.大家對護(hù)林員揭發(fā)感到非常氣憤。,,b.大家對林業(yè)局帶頭偷運木料普遍感到非常氣憤。,,3.無魚肉亦可無雞鴨亦可唯青菜蘿卜不可少不得一分工錢。,,無魚，肉亦可；無雞，鴨亦可；唯青菜蘿卜不可。少不

26、得一分工錢。,,無魚肉亦可，無雞鴨亦可，唯青菜蘿卜不可少。不得一分工錢。,,Punning,,1. It was lunchtime and the only officer on duty was a fortyish black man with short, pressed hair, a pencil mustache and a neatly pressed brown suit. Everything about him suggested a carefully,dressed,authority.,,(B1,,L4 The Boy and the Bank Officer),

27、,---,to dress,: 1) to put on clothes; 2) to make up (做頭發(fā)、梳理);,,2. Ben Battle was a warrior bold,,,And used to war’s alarms:,,But a Cannon-ball took off his legs,,,So he laid down his arms. (part of the body; weapon) (the use of homonyms) (Thomas Hood,Faith

28、less Nelly Grey,),,,3. We have courses to make grown men young and young men groan. (the use of homophones),,4. Reds black white-collar goods. (the use of,Polysems,),,,1. 寶釵笑道：“原來這叫,負(fù)荊請罪,！你們通今博古，才知道,負(fù)荊請罪,，我不知什么叫,負(fù)荊請罪,?！?《紅樓夢》,,2. 不寫情詞不寫詩，一方素帕記心知；心知接到顛倒看，,橫也絲來豎也絲,。這般心事有誰知？ 《素帕》,,Hyponymy,[hai'p

29、ɑnimi],,（下義關(guān)系）,Hyponymy----the sense relation between a more general, more inclusive word and a more specific word.,,Superordinate（上坐標(biāo)詞）: the word which is more general in meaning.,,Hyponyms: the word which is more specific in meaning.,,Co-hyponyms: hyponyms of the same superordinate.,,Hyponymy,Supe

30、rordinate,: flower,,Hyponyms: rose, tulip, lily, chrysanthemum,（,菊花）,, peony,（,牡丹花）,, narcissus,（,水仙花）,, …,,,Superordinate,: furniture,,Hyponyms: bed, table, desk, dresser,（,梳妝臺）,, wardrobe,（,衣櫥）,, sofa, …,,Sense relations between sentences,(1)?? X is synonymous （近似）with Y,,(2)?? X is inconsistent （

31、不一致）with Y,,(3)?? X entails Y（包含）,,(4)?? X presupposes Y（預(yù)示）,,(5)?? X is a contradiction（矛盾）,,(6)?? X is semantically anomalous,[?'nɑm?l?s],,（反常的）,,,X is synonymous with Y,X: He was a bachelor all his life.,,Y: He never got married all his life.,,,X: The boy killed the cat.,,Y: The cat was killed by

32、 the boy.,,,If X is true, Y is true; if X is false, Y is false.,,X is inconsistent with Y,X: He is single.,,Y: He has a wife.,,,X: This is my first visit to Beijing.,,Y: I have been to Beijing twice.,,,If X is true, Y is false; if X is false, Y is true.,,X entails Y,X: John married a blond heiress.,

33、,Y: John married a blond.,,,X: Marry has been to Beijing.,,Y: Marry has been to China.,,,Entailment is a relation of inclusion. If X entails Y, then the meaning of X is included in Y.,,If X is true, Y is necessarily true; if X is false, Y may be true or false.,,X presupposes Y,X: His bike needs repa

34、iring.,,Y: He has a bike.,,,Paul has given up smoking.,,Paul once smoked.,,,If X is true, Y must be true; If X is false, Y is still true.,,X is a contradiction,*My unmarried sister is married to a bachelor.,,,*The orphan’s parents are pretty well-off.,,X is semantically anomalous,*The man is pregnan

35、t.,,,*The table has bad intentions.,,,*Sincerity shakes hands with the black apple.,,Analysis of meaning,,Componential analysis （成分分析）,,Predication analysis （述謂結(jié)構(gòu)分析）,,Componential analysis,Componential analysis---- a way to analyze lexical meaning. The approach is based on the belief that the meani

36、ng of a word can be dissected(,切開,分析),into meaning components, called semantic features. For example,,,,Man: [+HUMAN, +ADULT, +ANIMATE有生命的,,, +MALE],,Boy: [+HUMAN, -ADULT, +ANIMATE, +MALE],,Woman: [+HUMAN, +ADULT, +ANIMATE, -MALE],,Girl: [+HUMAN, -ADULT, +ANIMATE, -MALE],,Predication analysis,1),T,h

37、e meaning of a sentence is not to be worked out by adding up all the meanings of its component words, e.g.,,,The dog bites the man.,,The man bites the dog.,,,*semantically different while components exactly the same.,,,2),,There are two aspects to sentence meaning:,grammatical meaning,and,semantic m

38、eaning,, e.g.,,,Green clouds are sleeping furiously.,,Sincerity shook hands with the black apple.,,,* Whether a sentence is semantically meaningful is governed by rules called,selectional restrictions（選擇限制） --- constraints on what lexical items can go with what others,.,,,,Predication analysis---- a

39、 way to analyze sentence meaning (British G. Leech).,,,Predication----the abstraction of the meaning of a sentence. A predication consists of argument(s) （變元）and predicate（謂詞）.,,,An argument is a logical participant in a predication, largely identical with,the nominal elements (名詞性成分),in a sentence.

40、,,,A predicate is something said about an argument or it states the logical relation linking the arguments in a sentence.,,,e.g.,,Tom smokes.,? TOM (SMOKE),,Tom smokes.,,Tom is smoking.,,Tom has been smoking.,,Tom, smoke!,,Does Tom smoke?,,Tom does not smoke.,,The tree grows well. ? TREE (GROW),,The

41、 kids like apples.,? KID, APPLE (LIKE),,I sent him a letter.,? I, HIM, LETTER (SEND),,It is hot. ? (BE HOT),,,According to the number of arguments contained in a predication, we may classify the predications into the following types:,,One-place predication （一位述位結(jié)構(gòu)）: smoke, grow, rise, run, … (,He,smokes.),,Two-place predication: like, love, save, bite, beat,… (,I,like it.),,Three-place predication: give, sent, promise, call, … (,She,gives,him a book,.),,No-place predication: It is hot.,,