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1、單擊此處編輯母版標(biāo)題樣式,,單擊此處編輯母版文本樣式,,第二級,,第三級,,第四級,,第五級,,,,,單擊此處編輯母版標(biāo)題樣式,,單擊此處編輯母版文本樣式,,第二級,,第三級,,第四級,,第五級,,,,,單擊此處編輯母版標(biāo)題樣式,,單擊此處編輯母版文本樣式,,第二級,,第三級,,第四級,,第五級,,,,,Lexicology詞匯學(xué),Lexicology,A branch of linguistics, inquiring into the origins and meanings of words.,,,Aims at investigating and studying the morph

2、ological structures (,形態(tài)結(jié)構(gòu),) of words, their semantic structures, relations, historical development, formation and usages.,Relation with other disciplines,Morphology,形態(tài)學(xué)（,structure,）,,Semantics,語義學(xué) （,meaning,）,,Etymology,詞源學(xué) （,origin and historical development,）,,stylistics,文體學(xué) （,style,）,,Lexicograp

3、hy,詞典編纂學(xué),（,dictionary,）,,,Lexicology embraces all the above.,,,主要內(nèi)容,英語詞匯學(xué)是一門以當(dāng)代語言學(xué)多種理論為指導(dǎo)，全面深入研究英語,詞匯,的專業(yè)課程。,,,課程的主要內(nèi)容包括：詞匯學(xué)習(xí)和研究的基本概念、英語詞匯的來源和發(fā)展演變、構(gòu)詞方法、詞義的變化、詞義關(guān)系、英語成語等。,Chapter One,A General Survey of English Vocabulary,英語詞匯概述,Key points,1. word: definition,,2. Development of English Vocabulary (hi

4、story),,3. Classification of English Words,,Word,Word,與字？,,Definition,：,,the two often quoted definitions from,Bloomfield,布洛姆菲爾德（美國語言學(xué)家教育家）,and,,a French linguist, Antoine,Meillet,（梅耶，法國語言學(xué)家）,Bloomfield,“some linguistic forms,（語言形態(tài)）,, which we call bound forms(,限定,/,非自由形態(tài),),,are never used as senten

5、ces.,,,,Bound forms: as part of a larger form,,e.g. boy,ish /,child,ish,,Free forms: occur as sentences,,e.g. Fire!/ Help!/ Poor John/ John ran away.,,A word is a free form which does not consist entirely of (two or more) lesser free forms. In belief,,a word is a minimum free form.” (p.

6、 1,,para,. 2),,,This definition emphasizes syntax(,句法,),，,but does not touch upon meaning.,,Antoine,Meillet,“,A word is defined by the,association,of a given,sense,with a given group of,sounds,capable of a given,grammatical use,.” (p.2, para.2 ),,Main criteria,（標(biāo)準(zhǔn)）,of a word:,,Sound, meaning and syn

7、tactic function,（音、義、形）,Definition,a fundamental unit of speech and a minimum free form;,,with a unity of sound and meaning capable of performing a given,syntactic,function.,（,p. 2. para.4,）,,言語的基本單位和最小自由形態(tài)；它是聲音和意義的結(jié)合體，能發(fā)揮一定的句法功能。,,Words are either spoken or written.(,口頭和書面,),An Example,The young ma

8、n left quietly.,,,Sound:,,Meaning:,,Syntactic function(,句法功能,): part of speech(,詞性,),,The: article,冠詞,young: adj.,形容詞,,Man,：,n.,名詞,left,：,v.,動詞,quietly: adv,副詞,1. The development of English Vocabulary,英語詞匯的發(fā)展,Vocabulary,All the words in a language,： （,p.3,）,,The building materials of a language.,,Im

9、portant to have some knowledge of its development and growth.,,,A: Historical perspective,歷史的角度,Development of English and its vocabulary:,,1.,Old English,古英語,/,Anglo-Saxon,盎格魯撒克遜,（,449-1100,）,,England,：,Celtic,（凱爾特語）,/ 450AD,，,invaded by Angles,盎格魯,, Saxons,撒克遜,, Jutes,朱特人,,Vocabulary,：,5000-6000 w

10、ords,，,chiefly,Anglo-Saxon,/ some Old Norse,古斯堪的那維亞語,,Old Norse words,(are, they, their, them, till, call, die, give, take, skin, window, ill, weak),,Latin words,: Roman contact (bargain, cheap, inch, pound, cup, dish, wall, wine),,Christianity,基督教,: abbot (,修道院院長,)altar,圣壇,candle,，,temple,,Middle E

11、nglish,（,1100-1500,）,Transitional,過度的：,,French Influence,,Norman Conquest in 1066,諾曼底征服,,English for the mass and French for the rulers,Vocabulary:,,Loss of a large part of Old English words,,Adoption of,French words,:,,Law and government: (judge, justice, state),,Military: (conquer, victory),,Relig

12、ion: (confess, divine, sermon,布道,),clothing,: (coat, dress, gown, robe),,Food: (beef, pork, dinner),,Art: (beauty, image),,Literature: (chapter, poet, prose),,Science: (medicine, remedy, surgeon),,,The core of the language: Still English,Modern English(1500-present),1. Renaissance: the study of the

13、 classics,,Latin,loan words,—,science and abstract ideas (function, education, exist, scientific),,Greek words,: literary, technical and scientific words: (drama, comedy, tragedy, physics),French,: caf,é, attaché(,專員,),,Spanish,：,cigar, vanilla,，,cocoa,,Italian,：,concert, piano, solo, piazza.,,Portu

14、guese,葡萄牙語,: caste,種姓制度，,pagoda,寶塔,,German,：,zinc,鋅,,Dutch,：,dock,,,Russian,：,vodka, tsar,沙皇,,,2. Exploration, colonization and trade---- borrow from non-European language,,Australian,：,kangaroo,,Arabic,：,sugar,，,alcohol,,Indian,：,coolie, khaki,,Hebrew,希伯來語,:,,Chinese,：,yamen,,Japanese: tycoon,,Afri

15、can: zebra, gorilla,Summary,The English language has vast debts.,,80% words are borrowed.,,Latin, French, Greek, Scandinavian languages,,Portuguese, Italian, Spanish, Dutch.,,Other languages of the world.,,Result:,,1. Vocabulary extremely rich and heterogeneous,多樣化的 （,one million words,）,,2. synonym

16、s and idioms,B: rapid growth of present-day English Vocabulary and Its causes,Neologisms(,新詞,) after World War II,,Reasons,：,,1. progress of science and technology,科技,,2. socio-economic, political and cultural changes,社會經(jīng)濟、政治和文化,,3. the influence of other cultures and languages,其他文化和語言的影響,Marked pro

17、gress of science and technology,Examples:,,1. Nuclear bombs: chain reaction,連所犯反應(yīng),, overkill,過度殺傷,, medium-range ballistic missiles,中程彈道導(dǎo)彈,,2. Exploration of Space: astronaut, countdown, spaceman, space shuttle,,3. computer science: software, hardware, input, output, memory, monitor, data base,2. S

18、ocio-economic, political and cultural changes,A. new social habits and new living conditions: hire purchase(,租購,),，,credit card,,B. Domestic habits: chores,雜事,, house sitter,代為看管房屋的人,, house sitting, supermarket,,C. Drug addiction,藥物成癮,: acid head,癮君子,,D. Student unrest: be-in(,社交集會,) love-in,談情說愛的集

19、會,gay/ homophile,,,E. internal political struggle in the US: Sit-in,靜坐,swim-in,游泳抗議,teach-in,宣講會；座談會（大學(xué)校園中就有爭議的或重要的問題發(fā)表意見進(jìn)行討論）,,F: Women’s liberation movement: Ms, Chairperson, chairwoman, spokeswomen, saleswoman, feminism, sexism,性別歧視,,G. Struggle of the black people: black studies,黑人研究,black powe

20、r,黑人權(quán)利,,H. changes in Education: open classroom, open university,,,I. New Entertainment: call-in,電話交談節(jié)目,,J. Sports: skydiving,跳傘運動,,3. The influence of other cultures and languages,Discotheque,迪斯科舞廳,,,Mao tai,,Summary,The development of science,,the rapid changes in society,,The receptive and flexib

21、le nature of English,,,Resulted in a dramatic increase in vocabulary.,2. Classification of English Words,英語單詞的分類,Three criteria,三個標(biāo)準(zhǔn),1. by origin,起源,,2. by level of usage,使用的等級,,3. by notion,概念功能,By origin: native words and loan words,Native words,本族詞,:,,Words of Anglo-Saxon,盎格魯,-,撒克遜,origin or of O

22、ld English,,Loan words,外來詞,(borrowed words):,,words borrowed from other languages,,Naturalized or used as they are in the original language. (p. 9),Native words,Most are,monosyllabic,(,單音節(jié)的,),,The great majority of the,basic word stock,:,,basic word stock,基本詞庫,: foundation of the vocabulary,,Auxilia

23、ry and modal verbs:,情態(tài)動詞,,Numerals,數(shù)詞，,pronoun,代詞，,preposition,介詞，,conjunctions,連詞,…,(p.10, para.2),,Fundamental features of the basic word stock,1. national character:,全國性,,2. stability,穩(wěn)定性（,relatively,）,,3. word-forming ability:,構(gòu)詞能力,,4. ability to form collocations:,與其他詞搭配的能力,,Questions,1.Are the

24、re more native words or more loan words in English?,,2. which are used more frequently in everyday speech and writing?,,By origin, English words can be classified into______________.,By level of usage,使用的等級,1. Common words,常用詞匯,:,（,p.11,）,,words connected with the ordinary things or activities neces

25、sary to everyday life.,,The great majority of English words are common words.,,,The core of the common words is the basic word stock.,,Appropriate in formal and informal writing and speech.,2. Literary words,書面詞,:,,chiefly used in,writing,, especially in books written in a more elevated style, in of

26、ficial documents or in formal speeches.,,comparatively,seldom used in ordinary conversation,.,,Examples: p. 12,,Foresee, outline,vs. visualize, adumbrate,,Fatigued, retired,vs. tired, went to bed,,In English, most of the literary words are of French, Latin or Greek origin.,,Everyday synonyms: P. 12

27、 for examples:,Among the literary words, two categories are noteworthy:,Archaic words:,古體詞,,,words no longer in common use, although retained for special purpose. (They are sometimes employed in poetry, business letters, etc.),Examples,Abed---in bed; behold---see; belike---probably;,natheless,---ne

28、vertheless; perchance---by chance.,,Archaic word are marked as “,arch,”,,different from,obsolete,（廢棄的）,,words. Obsolete words are those completely out of current use. Marked “,obl,, dated”,,Poetical words:,詩歌詞語,,Poetical words are words that are traditionally used only in,poetry,.,,Array---outfit;

29、 the deep---the sea; stead---horse; morn---morning;,,Some words are,both poetic and archaic,: p.13 for examples.,,3. Colloquial words,口語詞,:,,used mainly in spoken English, as in conversation among friends and colleagues. They can also be used in informal writings,Examples,Feeling,fatigued,, Tom,re

30、tired,early. (Literary),,Tom felt so,dog-tired,he,hit the sack,early. (Colloquial),,John was,dismissed,for petty thieving. (Common),,John was,fired,for petty thieving. ( Colloquial ),,Slang words:,俚語詞,,language, words or phrases of a vigorous,,colourful,, facetious,滑稽的,, or taboo nature, invented fo

31、r specific occasions, or uses, or derived from the unconventional use of the standard vocabulary.”,Colloquial vs. slang,Some overlap,,Colloquial: not to be used on formal occasions,,Slang: not used in informal conversations, unless the speakers are on intimate terms.,The chief reason for the formati

32、on and use of slang expressions is,to secure freshness and novelty,.,,Buzz--- telephone call,,Knockout---,給人留下深刻印象的人；絕代佳人,,Nuthouse,—,精神病院,,To play hooky,—,逃學(xué),,Technical words:,專業(yè)術(shù)語,,words used in various,special fields,.,,Every branch of science, every profession or trade, art, and every sort of sp

33、orts has its own technical terms.,Summary,Since language is constantly changing, the classification of words by level of usage is not absolute.,Question,By level of usage, English vocabulary can be classified into ______.,,A.,common words, literary words, colloquial words, slang words and technical

34、words.,B.,native words and loan words,C.,function words and content words,D.,original words and derivational words,By notion,意念,: function words and content words,Function words:,虛詞,,often short words such as determiners,限定詞,, conjunctions,連詞,, prepositions,介詞,, auxiliaries,助動詞,, and so forth.,,They

35、 do not have much lexical meaning,詞匯意義,and some of them have no lexical meaning of their own;,,They h,a,v,e,,g,r,a,m,m,a,t,i,c,a,l,,m,e,a,n,i,n,g,.,,語法意義,.,,They belong to a relatively small and permanent set of words.,,The total number of function words is about 154.,,Content words:,實詞,,Words used

36、to name objects, qualities, actions, processes or states, and have independent lexical meaning.,,Nouns, main verbs, adjectives and adverbs,,Content words belong to an,open list.,,,Summary,Function words: small in number, closed list, most frequently used,,Content words: large in number, open list, l

37、ow frequency of occurrence.,,Chapter summary,Word:,,Historical development of English vocabulary,,Classification of English words,Chapter II,Morphological structure of English words,英語詞匯的形態(tài)結(jié)構(gòu),1. Morphemes,詞素,/,語素,Word,a fundamental unit of speech and a,minimum free form,; with,a unity of sound and m

38、eaning,(both lexical and grammatical meaning) capable of performing a given,syntactic,function,,A. Basic information,：,1. The morpheme is the,smallest meaningful linguistic unit of language,, not divisible or analyzable into smaller forms.,,Example:,denationalization,民營化（,word,）,,-----de+nation+al+

39、iz+action,,（,five morphemes,）,,A word may be,analysable,into one or more morphemes.,,A morpheme is also a two-facet language unit which possesses both,sound and meaning,.,,Different from a phoneme:,音素,---k /,k/,u/ju,:/,,a/,ei,,,i/ai,/,,A book, I love him.,,A morpheme is not identical (,同一的,) with a

40、syllable (,音節(jié),), either, since the latter has nothing to do with meaning.,,Boy, child----one syllable, one morpheme.,,lady--- two syllables, one morpheme.,,Crocodile--- three syllables, one morpheme.,,B. Allomorphs,語素變體,/,同詞素的異形詞,,,An allomorph is,any of the variant forms of a morpheme,as conditione

41、d by position or adjoining sound.,,Examples:,,S in Books/s/, pigs/z/, horses/,iz,/,Suffix:,后綴,,-ion/ -,tion,/ -,sion,/ -,ation,,,Inven,t,--- invent,ion,,Describe-descrip,tion,,Justify---justific,ation,,,,modernize-moderniz,ation,,Expand,—,expansion,,,decide--decision,,,prefix,前綴：,im-/ir-/il-/in,-,,i

42、m,-im,p,erfect, im,p,ossible, im,b,alance, im,m,obile,,ir,-ir,r,esponsible, ir,r,egular,,il,- il,l,ogical,,in– inflexible, inexcusable,,,2. Classification of morphemes,詞素的分類,A: free and bound,Free Morpheme,自由語素,:,is one that can be uttered,說,,,講,alone with meaning. It can exist on its own without a

43、bound morpheme(,限定語素,/,粘著語素,).,,A free morpheme is a word, in the traditional sense.,,E.g. man, faith, read, write, red,,Bound Morpheme,限定語素,:,cannot stand by itself as a complete utterance; it must appear with at least one other morpheme, free or bound.,,E.g,: un---unkind; -,ly,---happily; re---

44、receive; s---dogs; ex,—,boxes; ed---worked.,B.,Roots and Affixes,morphemes may be divided into,roots,詞根,(or root morphemes,根詞素,) and,affixes,詞綴,(or,affixational,morphemes,,詞綴語素）,Roots,詞根,A root is the,basic unchangeable part,of a word, and it conveys the,main lexical meaning,of the word.,,E.g.,w

45、ork,,,work,able,,work,er,,work,ed,,work,ing,,,Roots are the cores of English words. Historically the root is the earliest form of a word.,Root are either free or bound.,Free roots,自由詞根,In English, many roots are free morphemes. E.g. boy, moon, walk, black,,Free roots belong to the basic word-stock,基

46、本詞庫,, and have the fundamental features of the basic word-stock.,,A free root consists one morpheme.,Bound roots,限定詞根,They are not words, and so are not free morphemes; they cannot exist on their own. < Nor can they be used to form new words. P.24,,tain,--- contain, detain, retain,,ceive,--- receive

47、, deceive, conceive,Summary,A root, free or bound, generally carries the main component of meaning in a word.,,Re,viv,e,,Vit,amin,,Vit,al,,viv,id,Affixes,詞綴,,An affix is a collective term for the type of formative (,構(gòu)詞要素,) that can be used only when added to another morpheme. P.25,,,Affixes, therefo

48、re, are considered,bound morphemes,. They may be divided into,inflectional,（曲折變化）,and derivational,,（派生）,types. P.25,Inflectional Affixes,曲折變化詞綴,An inflectional affix serves to express such meaning as plurality,復(fù)數(shù),, tense,時態(tài),, and the comparative,比較,or superlative degree,最高級,.,,Inflectional affix do

49、es not form a new word with,new lexical meaning,when it is added to another word. Nor does it change the,word-class,of the word to which it is affixed.,,The number of inflectional affixes is small and fixed; They have only their particular,grammatical meaning,.,Plural,復(fù)數(shù),:,-s-,es,-,,,Genitive case,屬

50、格：,Tom’,s,,Third person singular present tense,第三人稱單數(shù),: work,s,,Present participle,現(xiàn)在分詞,: -,ing,,Past tense and past participle: -ed –d,,Comparative: slow,er,,Superlative: fast,est,,Derivational affixes,派生詞綴,When they are added to another morpheme, they,derived a new word,.,,Many derivational affixe

51、s have a specific lexical meaning,詞匯意義,; or more than one meaning.,,E.g. p. 25,Derivational affixes have not only independent lexical meaning but also affective meaning,情感色彩,.,,mis,-/ mal-/,,There are also derivational affixes which can be attached to words of different word-classes.,,v./ n. +able

52、washable/ marriageable,,The number of derivational affixes, although,limited,, is much,larger than that of inflectional affixes,.,,,commonly subdivided into prefixes,前綴,and suffixes,后綴,:,,Prefixes: affixes before the word are called prefixes.,,Suffixes: affixes after the word are called suffixes.,,B

53、oth prefixes and suffixes may be grouped according to:,,,Their linguistic origin,:,,Native affixes,(are those that existed in English in the OE period or were formed form OE words.) and,Foreign affixes,(came as a part of loan words from foreign languages.),Hybrid,混合詞,: Most foreign prefixes and suff

54、ixes have long since become naturalized in English, and many words have been formed form elements of mixed origins.,,<,A hybrid is a word made up of elements from two or more different languages.>,,Examples,：,p.27,Their productivity,生產(chǎn)能力,Affixes are called,productive or living,when they can be used

55、to form new words. Those that are no longer used to form new words are termed,dead or unproductive,.,Morpheme,,(On the morphemic level, words can be classified into:,simple, complex and compound words.),,According to the number and type of morphemes they contain, words can be classified into:,Simple

56、 words,簡單的詞,those consisting of a single morpheme. E.g.) man, work, kind.,Derived words,派生詞,those which are the result of a derivational process. E.g.) fruitless, fruitful, unfruitful.,,,Compound words:,復(fù)合詞,those which are composed of two or more,free morphemes.,,,E.g. spacesuit, forget-me-not, jack

57、 of all trades.,Summary,Refer to p. 29,Chapter III,Word-formation,構(gòu)詞法,,The three major Process of word formation,三種主要的構(gòu)詞法,,General Remarks,Ways of forming words: on the basis of frequency of usage,根據(jù)使用的頻率,,Major,：,compounding,復(fù)合法，,derivation,派生，,conversion,轉(zhuǎn)化,,Minor,：,,acronym,首字母縮略詞，,blending,拼綴法，,

58、clipping,截短法，,proper names,專有名詞，,back formation,逆構(gòu)法，,reduplication,重疊法，,neo-classical formation,新古典法，,miscellaneous,其他,Percentage,of new words coined by the different word-formation,1. The three major processes of word-formation ( 55% of the new vocabulary. ):,,Compounding:,,Derivation:,,Conversion:

59、,,2. The eight minor processes of word-formation: (26.5% of the new vocabulary),,Some basic concepts of word-formation,1. word-formation rules:,,The rules of word formation define the scope and method whereby speakers of a language may create new words.,,P. 32,Root, stem, base,Terms used in linguist

60、ics to designate that part of word that remains when all affixes have been removed.,,詞根,,詞干,,詞基,Root,詞根,A root,is a form which is not further,analyzable,（可分解的）,, either in terms of,derivational,（派生的）,or,inflectional,（屈折變化的）,,morphology.,,It is that part of a word-form that remains when all the infle

61、ctional and derivational affixes have been removed. A root is the basic part always present in a lexeme,（詞位）,.,,Example,undesirables ----- the root is “,desire,”, to which first the suffix,“-able,”, then prefix “,un,-” and finally the inflectional suffix,“-s,” have been added.,,In a compound word “

62、greenhouse”-----root is “green” and ”house”,Stem,詞干,A stem,is of concern only when,dealing with inflectional,屈折變化的,morphology,形態(tài)學(xué),. Inflectional,(but not derivational) affixes are added to it.,It is the part of word-form which remains when all inflectional affixes have been removed.,Example,Undesira

63、ble,s ------the stem is undesirable;,desire,d-----the stem is desire;,,greenhouse,s------stem is greenhouse (even though the stem consists of two roots),Base,詞基,A base,is any form to which,affixes,of any kind can be added;,,,This means that any root or stem can be termed a base.,Difference between b

64、ase and root:,,Base,is a derivationally analyzable form to which derivational affixes are added.,,Root,is a form which permits no,further analysis,.,Difference between base and stem:,,Base,: both derivational and inflectional affixes can be attached to a base;,,Stem,: only inflectional affixes can b

65、e added to a stem.,Example,Desir,able,,Base,：,desire (+able,后綴,),,Root: desire,（,not analyzable,不可再分割）,,Stem?,沒有（沒有加屈折變化的成分，比如單復(fù)數(shù)）,,Undesirable,：,,Base,：,desirable,（,+un,前綴）,,Root,：,desire,,Stem,：沒有,Compounding,復(fù)合法,A word process consisting of joining two or more bases to form a new unit, a,compound

66、,word,（復(fù)合詞）,. P. 35,,The largest number of words are formed by compounding.,Orthographic,,criterion,正字法標(biāo)準(zhǔn),,Solid:,結(jié)實的,airmail,,Hyphenated:,帶連字符號的,air-conditioning,,Open,： 敞開的,air force,Phonological criterion,,音位標(biāo)準(zhǔn),Stress,重讀,,A single stress on the first element (‘__ __) as ‘,space,rocket;,,A main stress on the 1st element and a secondary stress on the 2nd element (‘__ ,__) as ‘,black,-,list;,example,‘,bluebird-----a species of bird,藍(lán)知更鳥,,‘,blue bottle-----a large buzzing fly with blue body,大蒼蠅；青