喜歡就充值下載吧。。資源目錄里展示的文件全都有，，請放心下載，，有疑問咨詢QQ:414951605或者1304139763 ======================== 喜歡就充值下載吧。。資源目錄里展示的文件全都有，，請放心下載，，有疑問咨詢QQ:414951605或者1304139763 ======================== Robotics and Autonomous Systems 75 (2016) 508524Contents lists available at ScienceDirectRobotics and Autonomous Systemsjournal homepage: of robotics in offshore oil and gas industryA review Part IIAmit Shukla, Hamad KarkiThe Petroleum Institute, Abu Dhabi, United Arab Emiratesh i g h l i g h t sWe present technical review of robotics used in offshore oil and gas industry.Site survey, production structure and inspection require assistance from ROV.Underwater inspection, welding and manipulation are critical areas in offshore.Remote sensing, prevention and cleaning of oil spill require robotic surveillance.For safety and productivity teleoperation robotics is the future of this industry.a r t i c l ei n f oArticle history:Available online 25 September 2015Keywords:RoboticsAutomationUnderwater manipulatorUnderwater weldingProduction structureNDTROVAUVWSNOil spilla b s t r a c tDemands for oil and gas are increasing with urbanization and industrialization of the worlds increasingpopulation. Giant oil fields are declining in their production worldwide and this situation is creatingneed for search of new conventional and non-conventional fossil reserves. With steep depletion of majoronshore and shallow-water-offshore oil fields new search of fossil fuel is moving towards deep-waterand ultra-deep water offshore fields. Obviously new reserves are located in extreme, hostile and hard-to-reach environmental conditions. Exploration, development and production of oil from such difficultoffshore fields have many serious challenges to health, safety and environment (HSE) therefore, requiresophisticated technological innovations to support increasing energy demand. Biggest oil spill accidentsin explosion of Deepwater Horizon offshore oil platform are burning example of such challenges whichhuman society cannot risk to repeat. Therefore, development of advance drilling system, more accurateand intelligent inspection mechanism, faster responsive system in cases of unfortunate incidence andefficient damage control system is need of the safer future. Successful implementation of robotics, inspace and manufacturing industry, is an critical example of how robotic assistance and automation is theonly option for safe and cost-effective production of oil in foreseeable future. Teleoperation of unmanneddrilling and production platforms, remote operated vehicles (ROVs), autonomous underwater vehicles(AUVs), under-water welding, welding robots for double hulled ships and under-water manipulator aresuch key robotic technologies which have facilitated smooth transition of offshore rigs from shallowwaters to ultra-deep waters in modern time. Considering the sensitivity of product and difficulty ofenvironment, most of these technologies fall under semi-autonomous category, where human operatoris in loop for providing cognitive assistance to the overall operation for safe execution. This papersummarizes the key robotic technologies currently used in offshore oil and gas facilities.2015 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.1. IntroductionWith ever increasing demands for energy to keep the pace ofindustrialization newer sources of fossil fuels are required. Non-conventional energy sources are either inefficient or insignificantCorresponding author.E-mail addresses: ashuklapi.ac.ae (A. Shukla), hkarkipi.ac.ae (H. Karki).to meet real energy challenges as of now, therefore around 80% ofour current energy demands are fulfilled by fossil fuels and out ofwhich 50%60% comes from oil and gas alone 1,2. Transporta-tion industry is the biggest consumer of fossil fuel because alterna-tive power sources fuel-cell, battery and solar cells have very lowenergy density in comparison to it. With fast depletion of easy re-sources new fields for petroleum products are found in more ex-treme conditions such as deep-water, hot deserts and arctic zoneetc. 3. With downhill onshore production, offshore crude oil pro-http:/dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.robot.2015.09.0130921-8890/2015 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.A. Shukla, H. Karki / Robotics and Autonomous Systems 75 (2016) 508524509duction has grown from 1 Mboe/d (million barrels of oil equivalentper day) in 1940 to nearly 24 Mboe/d in 2009 4. With shrink-ing supply and increasing demands, now oil and gas companiesare also trying for new non-conventional petroleum reserves suchas heavy oil, tight gas, shale gas and coal-bed methane etc. Mod-ern economy is highly sensitive to quality, quantity and cost ofcrudeoilasitcanbeclearlyobservedinphenomenaoffallingcrudeoil prices leading of fall in other non-oil commodity prices worldwide 57. This fall in crude oil prices came due to increasingproduction of gasoline, by hydraulic fracturing, mostly in USA 7.Though hydraulic fracturing poses serious challenges to environ-ment by ground water pollution, noise pollution, degradation ofair-qualityandpotentialdangeroffutureearthquakes.Butcounterargumentisthatfrackingtechnologyisswiftlygettingadvanceandmatured to deal with above mentioned challenges. Overall essenceis that demand for higher energy cannot be ignored, thereforeadvancement of technology for better management of existing re-sources and safer exploration of future difficult resources hold thekey for success.Most widely reported and studied tragedy of Deep Horizon oilspill in the Gulf of Mexico 8 has created severe crisis for count-less sea species, dozens of company employees lost lives, liveli-hood of local fishermen are destroyed permanently and operatingcompany British Petroleum (BP) has got embroiled in to many lawsuits 9. Investigators have found that there was a recurring pat-tern of ignoring warning signals, failure to share information, anda general lack of appreciation for the risks involved 10. This acci-dentwasahugesetbackforoilandgasindustrybeingbiggestenvi-ronmental crisis of known human history while severely affectingcountlesslivesfordecades.Butthisunfortunateeventhasalsotrig-gered the most serious debate not only in governments, academiaand environmentalists but also among the major players of the oiland gas industry for the future strategy of safer exploration andproductionofthefossilfuels11.Deepwaterdrillingexplorationisvery challenging because drilling takes place at deep, cold, distantandextremelyhigh-pressureenvironment.AndinthecaseofDeepHorizon oil spill, extreme pressure of natural gas under sea-bedhad created a crack in recently built concrete core, through whichgas traveled to rigs riser and then to the platform, where it ignited,killing 11 and injuring 17 workers. Attempt to close the well failedmiserably when efforts to activate rigs blowout preventer (BOP), asafety mechanism designed in the cases of failure to close the wellfrom which oil was drawn, did not succeed at the last minutes ofcrisis. In this accident almost 200 million gallons of oil was spilledin deep water creating terrible pollution for marine lives 12.Almost 2.9 million liter of dispersant chemicals were poured insea water to treat water which was polluted by oil and gas plumes13,14. This oil spill became even more critical because leak hap-pened in deep water at the depth of 1511 m and for which therewasnoreadilyavailabletechnologytocontrolthesuchspillimme-diately at such a deep subsurface level. Advanced industrial ROVs(Remotely Operated Vehicles) from Schilling Robotics, AUVs (Au-tonomous Underwater Vehicles) and UAVs (Unmanned Aerial Ve-hicles)wereemployedtodosea-floorsurveyandremotesensingofsubsurface submerged oil respectively for accurate analysis of thepollution caused by oil spill 13,15. In their internal report itselfBP has given glimpse of the extent of damage and herculean effortsinvolved in overall cleaning operations by stating that at its peakin 2010, the response effort involved the mobilization of approxi-mately48,000people,thecoordinationofapproximately6500ves-selsandthedeploymentofapproximately2500miles(13.5millionfeet) of boom to contain or absorb the oil. As at the end of Decem-ber 2014, BP has spent more than 14 billion USD and workers havedevoted more than 70 million personnel hours on response andclean-upactivities.TheUSCoastGuardendedtheremainingactiveclean-up operations in the Deepwater Horizon area of response inFig. 1. Onshore versus offshore oil production map 20.April 2014 16,17. In the wake of several terrible oil spill crisis inEurope,EuropeanCommissionhasalreadyfundedseveralresearchprojects with main objective of developing innovative intelligentrobotic technologies for oil spill management 18,19.Since, most of the giant onshore oil fields are in declining pro-duction and overall supply of crude from onshore reserves areleveled-out now 4,21, required thrust to match the soaring de-mands of supply chain is coming now from offshore productions.Currently almost 30% of the worlds oil production is coming fromdeveloping offshore field and deep-water reserves are also con-tributing around 9% as shown in Fig. 1 4,20. Since 2002 now evenoffshore oil production is also on decline due to saturation of shal-lowwateroilwells.Oilreservesfoundindepthd400mfromsealevel are called as shallow, deep-water when 400d1500 mand ultra-deep-water when 1500d m. As of now almost 80%of the total offshore production comes from shallow water oil re-serves. First offshore drilling is tracked back to as early as 1869to the first patent for offshore drilling rig design of T.F. Rowlandbut first commercially developed field started in 1896 off the coastof Summerfield, California. These early offshore fields were veryshallow only few feet deep from sea level. Deep-water productionbecame commercially feasible from year 1990 and started withproduction rate of 1.5 Mboe/d and now scaled up to three times.In a same spirit of finding new oil reserves, from year 2005onwards oil companies have also started exploring ultra-deepwater territories of sea. Contribution of offshore production iscritical for the world economy but somehow overall offshore pro-duction is also showing leveling off around 23 Moeb/d from years2002 onwards, mostly due to shrinking shallow water reservesand inability to find new big offshore reserves in recent time. Andmost of the new offshore oil and gas fields are found in extremeenvironmental conditions such as deep under and frozen arcticzones etc.Sensitivity of the product coupled with harshness of the envi-ronment now leading to critical HSE challenges, therefore, contin-uous inspection and maintenance of the oil and gas facilities areextremely important tasks. Extraction of oil and gas from deepwater conditions is an impressive engineering feat but it also re-quire equally capable technologies to prevent accidents and en-sure safety of human and marine lives. While increasing demandof oil and gas with advanced technologies have made difficult oilfields economically feasible but in case of accidents cost is catas-trophically unaffordable as clearly demonstrated in Deep Horizonoilspillcase.Humanlimitationsandtheircapacitytooperateinin-tensively extreme environment is really critical, therefore, roboticassistance in such situations will be immensely valuable 22. Insuch humanmachine cooperation model, most of the cognitiveability to take decisions will come from human operator and ac-cess to critical objects, data collection, inspection, manipulationandfeedbackcomesfromroboticdeviceequippedsuitablesensors.Therefore, it can be said that overall automation of the oil and gasfacilities can be further divided in to many specific subproblemssuch as humanmachine interface 1,8,2325, data-signal trans-mission 2629, resource allocation and task scheduling 3033,510A. Shukla, H. Karki / Robotics and Autonomous Systems 75 (2016) 508524navigation technologies 3436, localization of the mobile robotsand workspace-objects 3741, localization of AUVs in underwa-ter conditions 4251, inspection technologies 5258 and tele-operation 59 etc. Even after rightly an efficiently solving all thesesubproblemsintegrationofallthesesubsystemsisananotherchal-lenge 60.Fast growing challenges for the oil and gas industry, such aslower recovery rate, exploration of unconventional reserves, oper-ation in extreme environmental conditions and finally profitabil-ity of overall business model has put the need for raising thelevel of automation high on agenda 61. Successful handling ofthe above mentioned challenges requires best usage of alreadyavailable robotic solutions from other industries, blended withnew radical innovations especially designed for the oil and gas in-dustry such as intelligent drilling rigs, smart inspection and ma-nipulation techniques and automated operations for production.There are several ongoing projects indicating progress in this di-rection for example a Norwegian company named Robotic DrillingSystems, has signed a joint research program with NASA todevelop technology for intelligent drilling 11. ABB has also de-veloped an integrated remote monitoring system based on tele-operation to track all the critical parameters of a production plantfrom one single platform which are discretely distributed in dif-ferent parts of the plant 61. Considering the sensitivity of theproduct and their production environment most of the robotictechnology presently used or suggested to be used in near futureare still used only in a manner of operation assistant in the pro-cess of inspection, manipulation, repair (IMR) and rescue missions22,62. Such teleoperation based technology for IMR has al-ready produced exciting results in various fields, such as offshoreoil and gas explorations 22,6365, space explorations 6668,military 69, under-water exploration 70,71, medical applica-tion 72,73, entertainment 74, and hazardous environments75,76. Teleoperation, tele-manipulation, tele-robotics and tele-inspection etc. are just different categories of fundamentally sametechnology with some minor differences in over architectural ar-rangementofsystemcomponentsAgba:1995.Teleinspection(sub-classofteleoperation)isrelatedtousageofmobilerobotsequippedwith different kinds of sensors and devices 36,77 to perform theinspection and data collection 78.2. Robotics in offshore conditionsThree fourth of earths surface is covered with water, mainlyocean, have huge reservoirs of oil and gas also known as offshorefields. First commercial exploration of oil and gas in offshorefields, started with successful installation of offshore well in theGulf of Mexico, Louisiana, in shallow sea water 79. Then withimproving technology and depleting resources of fossil fuels, atboth onshore and shallow-water fields, search for oil and gas hasmoved from shallow water (less than 1000 ft from sea level) todeep water (more than 1000 ft from sea level till 10000 ft) 1,80.Initially oil exploration systems in shallow water were comprisedof same kind of devices as onshore facilities with only differenceof insulation of these equipments from water by packing themin sealed containers. Shift from manually operated oil fieldsof the shallow-waters to the remotely operated deep-water oilfields had two main roadblock, first was absence of advancetechnicalsupportandsecondwaseconomicunfeasibilityofoverallproject. But with increasing prices of the petroleum productsand improvement in available robotic technology is presentlymaking this historic transition possible. Now there are two mainsources of motivation for moving towards automatization of oiland gas field; the first motivation is to increase productivity whilesimultaneously improving cost efficiency, the second and mostimportant motivation is the necessity of effectively dealing withHSE challenges 80,81. New deep-water fields are beyond thereach of conventional divers and now governments are imposingmore stringent rules and regulations for continuous inspectionand maintenance of offshore facilities to minimize chances ofcatastrophic failure 82. Therefore, usage of remote controlledmachines,toeffectivelyperformthejobofhumandiversinsidethedeep-water, are now compulsory in such critical situations 59.Remotely controlled unmanned offshore oil and gas facilities arevery attractive solutions for reducing operational and capital costalong with improved standards of HSE 83. For example, usageof ROVs cost only one third of the day rate which is generallyassociated with divers, therefore, usage of ROVs and AUVs not onlyincrease human safety but also improve cost efficiency 84,85.Along with other benefits robots are less error prone even indemanding situations and perform more reliably than humans.Robots ability to work 24 h a day seven days a week with sameprecision, originally intended to be, makes them reliable andpowerful asset for the oil and gas industry 59,86.Theoilandgasindustrycanbedividedinthreemainstages,firstupstream,secondmidstreamandthirddownstream.Theupstreamoilsectorisaboutexploration,recoveryandproductionofcrudeoilfrom their reserves. Overall exploration and production togetheris also called as E&P sector which involves search for oil andgas reserves, drilling up exploratory well and ultimately installingsuitable production structure for the final production 87. Oncecrude oil or gas is extracted from reserves next step involvesprocessing, transportation and storage of these natural products.These tasks are parts of midstream oil sector which typicallylinks the supply of the oil industry to the demands for energycommodities 88. Finally the downstream sector involves refiningof crude oil and their distribution to different customers. Thisrefining is a very complicated process but generally involvessequence of actions like distillation, cracking, treating andreformingtogeneratefinallymoreusefulproductshavingdifferentgrades of viscosity and explosiveness 89. These products includegasoline, liquefied petroleum gas (LPG), diesel, naphtha, kerosene,fuel oils, lubricating oils, paraffin wax, asphalt, tar and petroleumcoke etc. 88. Compared to onshore, offshore environments aremore challenging and this leads to higher threat to human safetyand increased cost of production. Especially after accident of DeepHorizon oil spill, governmental regulations, for every stage ofoffshore oil and gas industry, have become more stiffer, therefore,usage of robotics has very high potential to increase productionefficiency and create safer production platforms while improvingcost efficiency.2.1. ExplorationsExploration of oil and gas mainly involve three kinds of expertanalysis, first from geologistsfor picking up particular safe basinforexploration, secondfromgeochemiststohelpidentifying rockstructures having organic fossils and third from geophysiciststo help in process of confirmation by collecting more data 90.The first phase of exploration is called as seismic study, wheredetailed mapping and high resolution acoustic data are used tomakeintelligentguessaboutlocationofthefuelreserve91.Intheprocess of onshore seismic studies, very large heavy duty vehiclescalled as vibroseis, are used to generate and send seismic wavesdeep in to the earth. These seismic waves are then reflected bydifferent layers of earth later to be recorded by geophones locatedon the earth surface. Seismic data recorded by the geophonesare used by geologists, geophysicists and reservoir engineers toregenerate the cross-section of earth to understand exactly whereoil and gas can be found. This overall process is also called asseismology. There are also some other technological tools such asmagnetometer and gravity-meter to study earths layer structureA. Shukla, H. Karki / Robotics and Autonomous Systems 75 (2016) 508524511in the search of oil and gas. But before going for setting upproduction unit, its mandatory for operators to confirm not onlyavailability of the petroleum products but also its commercialquality and quantity, to justify heavy capital cost involved in theoverallproductionprocess90.Inthiscasenewunmannedrobotictechnology, such as ROVs and AUVs, equipped with multipleadvance sensors performing task of exploration is extremelyuseful65,86.Inoffsho