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1、Unit 1 Language and language learning 1.2 views on language in the structural view, language is a system of structurally related elements which include phonological units, grammatical units, grammatical operations, lexical items to transmission of meaning. Therefore the target of language learning

2、 is to mastery these elements. 結(jié)構(gòu)觀把語言看做是結(jié)構(gòu)上相關(guān)聯(lián)的元素的系統(tǒng)，包括語音單位，語法單位，語法操作，詞項(xiàng)。語言學(xué)習(xí)目標(biāo)是掌握這些元素。 In the communicative/functional view, language is regards as a vehicle for express functional meaning. Although the grammatical characteristics are included, however, the semantic and communicative dimensions

3、 of language are more emphasized. In this view the target of language learning is to learn to express communication functions and categories of meaning. 交際 / 功能觀，語言是表達(dá)功能性意義的載體。雖然語法特點(diǎn)依然包括在內(nèi)，但更強(qiáng)調(diào)語言的語義和交際層面。因此語言學(xué)習(xí)目標(biāo)是學(xué)習(xí)表達(dá)通訊功能和意義類別。 The last one is the interactional view of language, it sees langua

4、ge is the means for establishing and maintaining relationship between people, and for performing social transactions between individuals. So the target of language learning is initiate and maintain conversations with others. 交際觀，語言是建立和維持人與人關(guān)系，執(zhí)行社交的方法。語言學(xué)習(xí)目標(biāo)，發(fā)起并維持對話 1.3 views on language learnin

5、g and learning in general 課本定義 1.4 elements contribute to qualities of a good language teacher 1.5 how can one become a good language teacher? Unit 2 Communicative principles and task-based language teaching The ultimate goal of foreign language teaching is: to enable the learners to use th

6、e foreign language in work or life. 2.2 communicative competence 定義誰給出 ? (Hymes) Hedge 的解釋 Linguistic competence . 語言能力 是指理解語言本身，語言形式及其意義的能力。語言能力包含了拼寫、發(fā)音、詞匯、構(gòu)詞、語法、句型和語義等方面的能力。語言能力是交際能力的基石，一個不可缺少的組成部份。 pragmatic competence 語用能力 是指學(xué)習(xí)者在特定的語境中針對特定的對象知道如何合適清晰地表達(dá)自己的意圖的能力。用 Hymes 的話

7、說就是知道 “ 何時說，何時不說，和誰，什么時間，什么地點(diǎn)，以什么方式說些什么 ” 。 discourse competence 篇章能力 是指在口語或書面語中理解或創(chuàng)造連貫的上下文內(nèi)容的能力，或稱 話語能力 。例如：在口語或書面語中，使用‘首先，其次，然后，最后‘等保持上下文的連貫。 strategic competence 策略能力 是指如何在一個真實(shí)的交際情景下保持交際渠道通暢的能力。它包括以下三個方面： 1) 在口語和書面語冒險一試的能力； 2) 使用具體交際策略的能力； 3) 習(xí)得具體交際策略中的常用語言形式。 f

8、luency 語言流暢 語言流暢是指自如地把言語單元有效連結(jié)起來的能力。流暢涉及語言的輸出，多指口語的輸出。流暢包括三個方面： 1 ）語義流暢， 2 ）詞匯，句法流暢， 3 ）發(fā)音流暢。 2.4 principles of communicative language teaching Three principles for CLT These are the three principles suggested by Richards and Rodgers: Communication principle: Activities that inv

9、olve real communication promote learning. 交際原則：涉及交際的活動可以提高學(xué)習(xí)的效果。例如：問路 Task principle: Activities in which language is used for carrying out meaningful task promote learning. 任務(wù)原則：用語言完成有意義任務(wù)的活動可以提高學(xué)習(xí)的效果 例如：通過目標(biāo)語言設(shè)置課堂活動的規(guī)則 Meaningfulness principle: Language that is meaningful to learner su

10、pports the learning process. 意義原則： 對學(xué)習(xí)者有意義的活動有利于學(xué)習(xí)過程 Howatt （ 1984 ）指出，交際教學(xué)法流派中可分出 “ 溫和派 ” 和 “ 激進(jìn)派 ” 兩種： “ 激進(jìn)派 ” 聲稱語言是通過交際習(xí)得的，因此這并不是一個激活已有的知識的問題，而是一個促進(jìn)掌握語言系統(tǒng)本身的問題?？煞Q作 “ 用英語學(xué)英語 ” （ using English to learn it ）。 “ 溫和派 ” 強(qiáng)調(diào)向?qū)W習(xí)者提供使用英語進(jìn)行交際的機(jī)會的重要性，將這類交際活動置于更大范圍的語言教學(xué)中?？梢?/p>

11、稱作 “ 學(xué)用英語 ” （ Learning to use English ） 2.6 main features of communicative activities 素材的真實(shí)性 Communicative activities 的分類 Criteria for evaluating how communicative classroom activities p24 Communicative purpose; (information gap) 活動要涉及日常交際，為學(xué)習(xí)創(chuàng)造出一個信息溝 Communicative desire; (real

12、need) 要為學(xué)生創(chuàng)造交際的需求 (Focus on ) Content, not form; (message) 活動的設(shè)置的要點(diǎn)是內(nèi)容，不是形式。是和說什么有關(guān)，不是和如何說有關(guān) Variety of language; (not just one language form, free to improvise/create) 語言形式的多樣化 No teacher intervention; (done by Ss; no correcting/evaluating how Ss do it; assessment is based on the ‘produ

13、ct’ or on communicative purpose rather than on the language.) 教師不要干預(yù)活動的進(jìn)行，不要糾錯，評估 No material control. 活動不應(yīng)對學(xué)生使用的語言有要求，由學(xué)生自己選擇哪種語言的使用 2.7 task-based language teaching A purpose- a clear purpose 目的要明確 A context- a real world relationship 要與現(xiàn)實(shí)生活的語言活動相似 A process- comprehending, using

14、 the language and communicating 任務(wù)執(zhí)行的過程是理解的過程，使用語言的過程，是交際的過程 A product- nonlinguistic outcome 任務(wù)應(yīng)該有一個非語言成果 ex, ex-tasks, tasks 的區(qū)別 2.8 PPP and Task-based language teaching 兩個圖表 Unit 3 The national English curriculum 3.3 task 3 The new curriculum is designed to promote students’

15、 overall language ability, which is composed of five interrelated components, namely, language skills, language knowledge, affects, learning strategies and cultural understanding. Each component is further divided into a few sub-categories. Language teaching is no longer aimed only for developing la

16、nguage skills and knowledge, but expanded to developing learners’ positive attitude, motivation, confidence as well as strategies for life-long learning along with cross-cultural knowledge, awareness and capabilities. 新課標(biāo)的設(shè)計是為了促進(jìn)學(xué)生的綜合語言能力，包含五個互相關(guān)聯(lián)的部分，文化意識，情感態(tài)度，學(xué)習(xí)策略，語言技能和語言知識，每個部分進(jìn)一步分為不同的小類別。語言的教學(xué)不

17、再僅僅注重發(fā)展語言技能和知識，它已經(jīng)擴(kuò)展到發(fā)展學(xué)習(xí)者的態(tài)度，動機(jī)，信息，以及學(xué)習(xí)策略，跨文化的知識（例子），意識和能力。 Unit 4 Lesson planning Proper lesson planning is essential for both novice and experienced teachers. Although preparation does not guarantee successful lessons, walking into a classroom unprepared is more often than not the beginnin

18、g of a disastrous [ di'z ɑ :str ? s ] lesson. 備好課對新教師（比如像我這樣的）和經(jīng)驗(yàn)豐富的教師來說至關(guān)重要。雖然備好課并不能保證成功的課堂教學(xué)，但沒有準(zhǔn)備就走進(jìn)課堂，就不僅僅是一堂失敗的課的開始。 4.3 Macro planning vs Micro planning Macro planning is planning over a longer period of time, for instance, planning for a whole program or a whole-year course.

19、宏觀性的備課是對一個很長時期的課，例如整個課程、或一個學(xué)期的課程進(jìn)行準(zhǔn)備。 In a sense, macro planning is not writing lesson plans for specific lessons but rather helping teachers get an overall felling or idea about the course and also get familiarized with the context in which language teaching takes place. 從這個意義上來說，宏觀性的備課就不是針對特

20、定的哪節(jié)，或哪幾節(jié)課進(jìn)行教案的書寫。它更重要的作用是為教師提供一個關(guān)于這門課的總的規(guī)劃，并幫助教師理解、熟悉對語言教學(xué)所發(fā)生的環(huán)境進(jìn)行。 Micro planning is planning for a specific unit or a lesson, which usually lasts from one to two weeks or forty to fifty minutes respectively. Micro planning should be based on macro planning, and macro planning is apt to be modi

21、fied as lessons go on. 那么微觀性的備課就是具體到每一節(jié)課，或每一個單元的備課活動。它可以分為一到兩周一次，每次設(shè)計的教學(xué)時間是 40-50 分鐘。 Unit 5 Classroom management 5.1 the role of the teacher ‘The teacher plays the role of controller when he is completely in charge of the class’ (Harmer: 1988). By control we refer to what students do, when

22、 they speak and what language they use. 當(dāng)課堂完全被教師控制的時候，教師所扮演的角色是‘控制者’。我們這里所說的‘控制’，包括控制學(xué)生做什么，什么時候做，使用什么語言形式去做等。 A prompter to encourage students to participate or male suggestions about how to proceed in an activity An organiser organizing the activities A participant (co-communicator) i

23、n an organized activity such as debate or role play. A resource- provider provide a source of language and knowledge. 5.3 student grouping 對應(yīng)的活動 Whole class work is where all the students are under the control of the teacher. They are all doing the same activity at the same rhythm an

24、d pace. 全班活動，所有學(xué)生都在教師的控制下進(jìn)行學(xué)習(xí)，以同樣的節(jié)奏和進(jìn)度執(zhí)行同一項(xiàng)活動。 Pair work is where the students work in pairs. 學(xué)生兩兩配對學(xué)習(xí)。 Group work is where the students work in small groups. 小組學(xué)習(xí)。學(xué)生根據(jù)課堂活動，以 3 、 4 、或 5 人分為一組。分組活動和配對活動比較相似，只是小組活動的人數(shù)多于配對練習(xí)的人數(shù)。當(dāng)課堂活動需要多于兩個學(xué)生進(jìn)行的時候，小組活動的優(yōu)越性就體現(xiàn)出來了，教師可以加入任一小組，但通常

25、以參與者身份出現(xiàn)，而不是以組織者或評審者的身份出現(xiàn)。 Individual study is the stage during the class where the students are left to work on their own and at their own speed. 獨(dú)自學(xué)習(xí)。 5.4 maintaining discipline 79 Discipline does not mean a series of punishment meted out to badly behaved students. 紀(jì)律不是針對頑劣學(xué)生的懲罰措施。課

26、堂管理早期的定義，就是狹義地用來指維持紀(jì)律 (discipline) 的技巧。 Discipline here refers to a code of conduct, which binds a teacher and a group of students together so that learning can be more effective. 紀(jì)律在這里是指一個行為的代碼，它對一個教師和他的學(xué)生們起一種約束的作用，以促使學(xué)習(xí)更有效的進(jìn)行。 When students are more likely to be engaged in learning? P79

27、 對學(xué)習(xí)的目的很明確；學(xué)習(xí)的新知識建立在以往學(xué)過的知識之上，但又具有挑戰(zhàn)性；學(xué)習(xí)者被學(xué)習(xí)的任務(wù)充分的激發(fā)了積極性；學(xué)習(xí)，包括學(xué)習(xí)中的任務(wù)的呈現(xiàn)，結(jié)構(gòu)等有趣，能激發(fā)學(xué)習(xí)者的好奇心；學(xué)習(xí)者有機(jī)會問問題，并尋求答案；學(xué)習(xí)者能看見自己的進(jìn)步；學(xué)習(xí)者對學(xué)習(xí)有滿足感。 5.5 classification of question types Classification of question types Closed or open questions 封閉式問題和開放式問題 Display or genuine ['d ?? nju ? n] questions 展示

28、性問題和真實(shí)性問題 Lower-order or higher-order questions 低思維層次問題和高思維層次問題 Bloom’s classification Closed questions refer to those with only one single correct answer; open questions may invite many different answers; lower-order questions refer to those that simply require recalling of information or memo

29、rization of facts; higher order questions require more reasoning, analysis, and evaluation. 封閉式問題：指只有一個正確答案的問題；開放式問題指有多種不同解答辦法的問題。低思維層次問題，學(xué)生只須回憶一個簡單的事實(shí)；而高思維層次問題，提問使學(xué)生回憶一些必須要學(xué)生理解有關(guān)難題問題的情況或解決方案，回答高思維層次問題，需要學(xué)生了解所知的事實(shí)、咨詢與更高思維層次例如分析、綜合與評鑒的能力。 5.6 dealing with errors: accuracy or fluency. 87 Errors v

30、s. mistakes 犯錯誤，出差錯 Mistake: refers to a performance error that is either a random guess or a ‘slip of tongue’, and it is a failure performance to a known system 行為上的差錯。學(xué)習(xí)者能通過檢查而自我糾正 Error: do not result from carelessness nor hesitation, but lack of knowledge in the target language. 由于知識的缺乏

31、造成的錯誤而不是由于粗心和猶豫造成。 Unit 6 Teaching pronunciation 6.2 realistic goal of teaching pronunciation Our realistic goals of teaching pronunciation are (p. 93) l Consistency: the pronunciation should be smooth and natural. ( 連貫性 ) （ fluency ） l Intelligibility [in,telid ?? 'bil

32、iti] : the pronunciation be understandable to the listeners.( 可辨認(rèn)性，可理解性 ) l Communicative efficiency: the pronunciation should help convey the meaning that is intended by the speaker. （交際的有效性） 6.5 practising stress and intonation Stress and intonation are important for beginning lear

33、ners. Intonation 定義 Unit 7 Teaching grammar 7.2 deductive and inductive method pennington’s synthesis approach The inductive method 歸納法 In the inductive method, the teacher induces the learners to realize grammar rules without any form of explicit explanation. 歸納教學(xué)比較注重語言的運(yùn)用而不是語 言

34、的形式。但這種教學(xué)方式對教師的要求比較高，學(xué)生對語言的理解未必準(zhǔn)確， 需要教師更多的幫助。 The guided discovery method 指導(dǎo)發(fā)現(xiàn)法 The guided discovery method is similar to the inductive method in that the students are induced to discover rules by themselves but different in that the process of the discovery is carefully guided and assist

35、ed by the teacher and the rules are then elicited and taught explicitly. There are two key theoretical issues related to this method: the role of explicit knowledge in language learning and the value of discovery as a general method of learning (Ellis, 2002a ) p105 指導(dǎo)發(fā)現(xiàn)法與歸納法一樣，教師引導(dǎo)學(xué)生去自我發(fā)現(xiàn)語法規(guī)則，不同的是，

36、發(fā)現(xiàn)的過程是由老師來引導(dǎo)和幫助的，得出規(guī)則后由教師明確地教給學(xué)生。 以往知識的作用，以及學(xué)生探索的能力 - 認(rèn)知理論 & 構(gòu)建理論 Synthesis approach [ 's ? nθ ? s ? s ] 綜合 方法 Pennington(2002) (p.107) proposes a synthesis approach to grammar pedagogy . Grammar teaching should be “collocational, constructive, contextual and contrastiv

37、e”, which can serve as useful guidelines for teaching grammar. (PP.107-108) 搭配，構(gòu)建，背景，對比 Unit 8 Teaching vocabulary 8.2 Denotative meaning and connotative meaning Denotative meaning 外延意義 - refers to those words that we use to label things as regards real objects such as a name or sign, et

38、c. in physical world. 詞的外延意義即所指意義（ referential meaning ）或認(rèn)知意義（ cognitive meaning ），它是以客觀世界的特定所指以及約定俗成的意義為基礎(chǔ)的，也就是詞典中所給出的定義。 Connotative meaning 內(nèi)涵意義 - refers to ‘the attitudes or emotions of a language user in choosing a word and the influence of these on the listener or reader’s interpret

39、ation of the word’ (Hedge 2000) 所謂內(nèi)涵意義 (connotative meaning) ，是隱含于或附加在概念意義上的意義。社會、群體或個人都可以使一個詞具有內(nèi)涵意義，有時還是很不相同的內(nèi)涵意義。這種差異既可以存在于兩種語言、兩種文化之間，也可以存在于一種語言和一種文化的亞文化之間。如英語里，狗的內(nèi)涵涵義包括友情，忠誠，但漢語里卻是相反的意思，如‘狼心狗肺’等。 receptive and productive vocabulary When teaching vocabulary, both teacher and students shoul

40、d aware of the distinction between productive (also called active) vocabulary and receptive (also called passive) vocabulary. Within these opposing categories, there is oftentimes no clear distinction. 接受性詞匯（消極詞匯）產(chǎn)出性詞匯（積極詞匯） Words that are generally understood when heard or read or seen constit

41、ute a person’s receptive vocabulary. 通過聽到、讀到或看到而理解的單詞構(gòu)成接受性詞匯。 Productive vocabulary, therefore, generally refers to words which can be produced within an appropriate context and match the intended meaning of the speaker. 產(chǎn)出性（積極）詞匯，即指在適合環(huán)境下，按照說話者或文字作者的意圖所產(chǎn)出的單詞。接受性的詞匯多數(shù)是一些學(xué)習(xí)者在某些詞匯手冊上背到，未進(jìn)行深入學(xué)習(xí)，在聽

42、力中聽到，不能馬上想到含義，在寫作時想用，又不知用得是否正確，只有在閱讀中見到，想一想才有印象的詞。接受性詞匯量的大小和你的英語水平基本無關(guān)，而只有那些聽到馬上想到含義，想說時馬上跑到嘴邊，寫作時自然流露筆端的產(chǎn)出性詞匯，才真正算是你的詞匯，通常人們認(rèn)為只有產(chǎn)出性詞匯才能用來衡量一個人的英語應(yīng)用水平。學(xué)界公認(rèn)，英語產(chǎn)出性詞匯達(dá)到 850 個，即能滿足一般交流層面的需要。國內(nèi)統(tǒng)計調(diào)查表明，大學(xué)四年級學(xué)生的平均產(chǎn)出性詞匯量僅有 500 個。 In most cases, a person’s receptive vocabulary is the larger of the two.

43、 For example, although a young child may not yet be able to speak, write, he or she may be able to follow simple commands and appear to understand a good portion of the language to which he or she is exposed. In this case, the child’s receptive vocabulary is likely tens, if not hundreds of words but

44、 his or her active vocabulary is zero. When that child learns to speak or write, however, the child’s active vocabulary begins to increase. 通常情況下，一個人的接受性詞匯量是大于產(chǎn)出性詞匯的。如，嬰幼兒不會說話，寫字的時候，他們是可以通過一些簡單的指令理解一定程度的，所接受過的語言知識。這種情況下，孩子的接受性詞匯可能很少， 10 個， 100 個，但積極詞匯，也就是產(chǎn)出性詞匯為零。當(dāng)孩子開始說話和寫字的時候，產(chǎn)出性詞匯才會開始增加。 I

45、t is possible for the productive vocabulary to be larger than the receptive vocabulary, for example in a second-language learner who has learned words through study rather than exposure, and can produce them, but has difficulty recognizing them in conversation. 產(chǎn)出性詞匯也有可能比接受性詞匯多。如第二外語的學(xué)習(xí)者，通過學(xué)習(xí)的手段，而

46、不是‘自然’的獲得手段學(xué)習(xí)語言，有可能產(chǎn)出單詞，但無法在對話中辨別。能看，能寫，不能聽，不能說。 As with receptive vocabulary, however, there are many degrees at which a particular word may be considered part of an active vocabulary. Knowing how to pronounce, or write a word does not necessarily mean that the word has been used to correctly or

47、 accurately reflect the intended message of the utterance, but it does reflect a minimal amount of productive knowledge. 但接受性詞匯在很大程度上能被認(rèn)為是產(chǎn)出性詞匯。比如，接受性詞匯，是可以經(jīng)過回憶后把音發(fā)出來，把單詞寫出來，雖然不一定意味這個詞已經(jīng)使用正確，或準(zhǔn)確表達(dá)了意圖，但它的確反應(yīng)了少量的產(chǎn)出知識。所以二者之間，是經(jīng)常可以混淆的。 Unit 9 Teaching listening 聽力的目的 9.6 while-listening activit

48、ies 目的 In real language use we use all skills, including the receptive skills of listening and reading, and the productive skills of speaking and writing. Children develop language competence in their first language in a relatively short time merely by being exposed to it. It is important to exp

49、oses our students to a variety of types of listening texts for a variety of purposes so that they will develop a variety of listening strategies to use for different situations. Unit 10 Teaching speaking 10.3 designing speaking tasks: common characteristics in successful speaking tasks 10.4 types o

50、f speaking tasks Unit 11 Teaching reading Intensive reading is an accuracy-oriented activity involving reading for detail. 11.6 models for teaching reading, teaching activities 閱讀的目的 個環(huán)節(jié)目的 , 活動 When producing or using reading comprehension exercises, one should start with global understanding and move towards detailed understanding rather than working the other way round. Unit 12 Teaching writing Pre-writing while-writing, post writing