,,,,,,,,,,,按一下以編輯母片標(biāo)題樣式,,按一下以編輯母片文字樣式,,第二層,,第三層,,第四層,,第五層,,,,*,,,,,,,,,,,,,,按一下以編輯母片標(biāo)題樣式,,按一下以編輯母片文字樣式,,第二層,,第三層,,第四層,,第五層,,,,*,,,UNIT 8,Language & Society,,,,,,,DEFINITIONS,OF,SOCIOLINGUISTICS,,,P. Trudgill (1974: 32),Sociolinguistics.. is that part of linguistics which is concerned with language as a,social and cultural phenomenon.,It investigates the field of,language and society,& has close connections with the social sciences, especially social psychology, anthropology, human geography and sociology.,,,,,Wm. Downes (1984: 15),Sociolinguistics is that branch of linguistics which studies just those properties of language and languages which require reference to,social, including contextual, factors,in their explanation.,,,,Spolsky ( 2000),Sociolinguistics is the field that studies the,relation between language and society,,between,the uses of language and the social structures,in which the users of language live. It is a field of study that assumes that human society is made up of many related patterns and behaviours, some of which are linguistic.,,,,Allwords Dictionary:,,The study of social and cultural effects on language,,,,,,Background Information,,,Chomsky’s Idea on Lang,uage,Knowledge of language: ‘competence’ and ‘performance’,,But linguistics should concern itself with the former, rather than the latter,,Study of linguistics should focus on ‘Ideal speaker-listener, homogeneous speech community, possessing perfect knowledge of language’,,,,,Dell Hymes,’,ideas on language,,Dissatisfied with Chomsky’s definition of ‘competence’: too narrow, too abstract, too sterile, and most importantly: too,asocial,,Hymes broadened the ‘competence’ notion to include knowledge of appropriate language,use,in the social and cultural context (i.e. not only syntactic correctness, which Chomsky emphasized),,,Hymes’,idea,s (cont’d),Knowing a language: not only grammar but also knowing about,use in contexts,, hence,‘,communicative competence’,,(major influence on foreign language teaching in 1970’s and 1980s),,Hymes: We need to merge,ethnography,(the study of humans in social and cultural groups),and,linguistics,(the study of language), to produce an ‘ethnography of speaking’ -,the forerunner of sociolinguistics,,A good deal of sociolinguistic research has adopted Hymes’ ‘ethnography of speaking’ approach,,,,8.1 The Scope of Sociolinguistics,,,,8.1.1 Language and society,‘Society’: a fuzzy notion in sociolinguistics.,,It can mean ‘the national group’ (i.e. the conventional definition), but can also be more loosely defined as ‘community’, ‘group’ or ‘network’.,,This collectivity may vary in size and be formed by such things as age, interest, family, gender, ethnicity, occupation, geography, social position, etc.,,,,,We must be aware that…,,,,Social factors must be included in description of language and language use.,,Language is not only used to communicate meaning, but also maintain social relationships.,,What and how we speak may reflect ourselves.,,Lexicon reflects both physical and the social environments of a society.,,Judgments on language may vary among linguists and ordinary people.,,,,8.1.2 Speech community and speech variety,,,General linguists and sociolinguists look at speech community differently. In a speech community there are different kinds of social groups which are divided in different ways (educational background, occupation, gender, age, ethnic affiliation),,,Different definitions of speech community,Corder (1973):,"A speech community is made up of individuals who regard themselves as,speaking the same language,; it need have no other defining attributes.",Romaine (1994):,"A speech community is a group of people who,do not necessarily share the same language, but share a set of norms and rules for the use of language.,The boundaries between speech communities are essentially social rather than linguistic... A speech community is not necessarily co-extensive with a language community.",,,Speech variety,Any distinguishable form of speech used by a speaker or a group of speaker. (three types: regional dialects, sociolects, registers),,,,8.1.3 Two approaches to sociolinguistic studies,,Macro-studies:,To look at society as a whole and consider how language functions in it and how it reflects the social differentiations,,a bird’s eye view,of the language used in society.,,Micro-studies:,To look at society from the point of view of an individual member within it, or,a worm’s-eye,,view,of language in use.,,,,,8.2 Varieties of language,,,,8.2.1 Dialectal,varietie,,Regional dialect,,a linguistic variety used by people living in the same geographical region,,e.g. regional varieties of Chinese:,,Hunan dialect, Shandong dialect, Cantonese,,,,,Regional varieties of English:,,,,British E., Irish E., New Zealand E., Australian E., South African E.,,Am. E., Canadian E.,,,,,,(1)  Pronunciation and typical spellinghame, stane, sair, gae,home, stone, sore, go,hoose, oot, doon/doun, coo,house, out, down, cow,ba(w), ha(w), faut, saut,ball, hall, fault, salt,buit, guid, muin, puir,boot, good, moon, poor,licht, micht, richt, sicht,light, might, right, sight,A Scots sampler,,,(2)               Grammarhe’ll no can come He won’t be able to come ah micht could gae I might be able to go ah dinna(e) ken I don’t knowwe couldna(e) dae it We couldn’t do ithe’ll no be comin He won’t be comingah, it’s yirsel Ah, it’s you,,,,Local variants of English (in non-English speaking countries),Benglish(Bengali English),,Chinglish (Chinese English),,Czenglish (Czech English),,Danglish (Danish English),,Dunglish (Dutch English),,Finglish (Finnish English),,Franglais (French English),,Genglish/Ginglish (German English),,Hunglish (Hungarian English),,Italish(Italian English),,Japlish (Japanese English),,Konglish (South Korean English),,,8.2.1.2 Sociolect,,,The linguistic variety characteristic of a particular social class,,,,Received Pronunciation (RP) in British English:,,a non-localized particular way of pronouncing standard English, was an indicator of a public school education and thus a high social status on the part of the speaker,,,8.2.1.3 Language and gender,Differences between women and men have always been a topic of interest to the human species and supposed linguistic differences are often enshrined in proverbs:,,,Language and gender,,Difference in pronunciation. (women are more status-conscious than men),,Difference in intonation (female speakers have a wider range in intonation),,Difference in lexicon (some adjectives used more frequently by female),,Women are more polite and milder,,,,a.Language and gender,:,,Decide which of the following is possibly spoken by a female,:,,1. I was so naive.,,2. My goodness, there’s the vice-chancelor!,,3. Shut up.,,4. You have done it, haven’t you?,,5. Won’t you please get me that glass?,,6. I’ll be damned, there’s a friend of mine.,,7. Oh, dear, the cup is broken.,,,features for woman language,:,,1. Women use more “fancy” color terms such as,mauve (,pale purple,),and,beige (,pale brown,),;,,2. Women use less powerful curse words;,,3. Women use more tag questions;,,4. Women prefer using hedge (e.g. sort of, I guess) and intensifiers (e.g. so, very, really, absolutely);,,5. Women’s linguistic behavior is more indirect and, hence, more polite than men’s.,,,,Robin Lakoff, in 1975, published an influential account of women's language. This was the book,Language and Woman's Place,. In a related article,,Woman's language,, she published a set of basic assumptions about what marks out the language of women.,,,,Hedge(,模糊限制語(yǔ),),,: using phrases like “sort of”, “kind of”, “it seems like”,and so on.,,Use (super)polite forms,: “Would you mind...”,“I'd appreciate it if...”, “...if you don't mind”.,,Use tag questions,: “You're going to dinner, aren't you?”,,Speak in italics,: intonational emphasis equal to underlining words -,so, very, quite,.,,Use empty adjectives,:,divine, lovely, adorable,, and so on,,Use direct quotation,: men paraphrase more often.,,Have a special lexicon,: women use more words for things like colours, men for sports.,Tags:,,Women use tags differently from man,,,women:,,Use,facilitative,tags, which have no informational function but an important,interactional,,function more often than men,,Quite a nice room to sit in actually, isn‘t it.,,Expressing personal opinion and value-judgement, does not require confirmation from anyone else,,,men:,,Use tags to acquire information in the first place. e.g.,,You were in Canada last year, weren‘t you?,,Mentioning a fact, which you already know, asking for further information about this fact,,,,,Use question intonation in declarative statements,: women make declarative statements into questions by raising the pitch of their voice at the end of a statement, expressing uncertainty. For example, “What school do you attend? Eton College?”,,Use “wh-” imperatives,: (such as, “Why don't you open the door?”),,Use modal constructions,: (such as,can, would, should, ought,- “Should we turn up the heat?”),,,,Avoid coarse language or expletives,,Use indirect commands and requests: (for example, “ Isn't it cold in here?” - really a request to turn the heat on or close a window),,Use more intensifiers: especially,so,and,very,(for instance, “I am,so,glad you came!”),In Chapter III in Jane Austen’s novel,“Pride and Prejudice”,Mrs Bennet, excited after participating in a party, talked to her husband about Mr.Bingley as follows:,,Oh! My dear Mr. Bennet, we have had a,most,,excellent,ball. …Jane was,so,admired,. Every,,body said,how,well,she looked. Mr. Bingley,,thought her,quite,beautiful,, …I was,so,vexed,to,,see him stand up with her. … I am,quite,delighted,,,with him. He is,so excessively,handsome,! …,,[Mr. Darcy] is,a,most,disagreeable, horrid man,.,,,So,high and,so,conceited,that there was no enduring,,him! He walked here, and he walked there, fancying,,himself,so very,great,! Not handsome,enough,,,to dance with.,,In this chapter，Jane Austen has taken,,advantage of these intensifiers to indicate,,that Mrs Bennet is shallow, superficial,,and exaggerating.,,,,*,language and sexual discrimination:,,male,(unmarked),female,(marked),,prince princess,,actor actress,,steward stewardess,,hero heroine,,poet poetess,,heir heiress,,host hostess,,count countess,,,8.2.1.4 Language and Age (omitted),,,,8.2.1.5 Idiolect,Definition:,,The speech of an individual, considered as a linguistic pattern unique among speakers of his or her language or dialect.,,Everyone speaks differently, in their own individual way: “idiolect” .In fact the way you use language differs from moment to moment,,Your idiolect will be characterized by phonetic, lexical and grammatical features,,Idiolect:,,The speech variety of an individual speaker,,,,,,,,Language,,… dialect dialect dialect …,… idiolect idiolect idiolect …,Language,= a continuum of dialects,,,Dialect,= a continuum of idiolects,DIALECT VS IDIOLECT,,,Accent vs dialect,“,Accent” generally refers only to phonetic differences,,“Dialect” usually means differences on,all,linguistic levels:,,Phonetic,,Lexical,,Grammatical,,Pragmatic,,,8.2.1.6 Ethnic dialect,,A social dialect of language that cuts across regional differences,,A variety of language that is mainly spoken by a less privileged population that has experience some form of social isolation such as racial discrimination or segregation,,e.g. Black English,,e.g. Yi, Miao,Yao, Zhuang dialects in Chinese,,,8.2.2 Register (語(yǔ)域),,,,,Definition :,The type of language which is selected as appropriate to the type of situation.,,Three variables that determine the register,,Field (,語(yǔ)場(chǎng),): refer to what is going on, subject matter of communication,,Tenor (,語(yǔ)旨,): refer to the role of relationship between the communicators,,Mode (,語(yǔ)式,): refer to the means of communication (oral or written (read or spoken)),,,,,e.g. a lecture on biology in a technical college,,Field: scientific (biological),,Tenor: teacher – students (formal, polite),,Mode: oral (academic lecturing),Field of Discourse refers to the type of social activity in which language plays a part, e.g. education, gardening, football playing, a chat over a cup of tea, a seminar about English stylistics, etc.,,,Exercise:,,Decide the filed, tenor and mode of discourse in the following examples,:,,1. An academic lecture on food contamination in China,,2. a conversation in a school dorm between two friends about their plan for a trip,,3. a letter to a net pal on campus life,,,,,8.2.3 Degree of formality,,,Martin Joos’s five degrees of formality,,,Frozen,: Visitors would make their way at once to the upper floor by way of the staircase.,,Formal:,Visitors should to be up the stairs at once,,Consultative,: Would you mind going upstairs right away, please?,,Casual:,Time you all went upstairs now.,,Intimate,: Up you go, chap!,,,Exercise:,,His dad has died. ( ),,His father has just passed away. ( ),,His dear father has just expired. ( ),,His old man just kicked the bucket. ( ),,His beloved parent has just passed to his heavenly reward. ( ),,,,Ans.,,His beloved parent has just passed to his heavenly reward. (,frozen,),,His dear father has just expired. (,formal,),,His father has just passed away. (,consultative,),,His dad has died. (,casual,),,His old man just kicked the bucket. (,intimate,),,,Different styles can be characterized through differences at three levels: syntactic, lexical and phonological.,,In syntax,,In lexicon,,,,More formal Less formal,,Offspring children,,decease die,,reply answer,,participate in take part in,,encounter come across,,tolerate put up with,,In address forms (Sir, Mr. Smith, Professor Smith, Smith, Frederick, Fred, Mate, Uncle, Fred, Dad),,,8.3 Standard dialect,,A,standard dialect,(also known as,"standard language,"),is a dialect that is supported by institutions. Such institutional support may include government recognition or designation; presentation as being the "correct" form of a language in schools; published grammars, dictionaries, and textbooks that set forth a "correct" spoken and written form; and an extensive formal literature that employs that dialect (prose, poetry, non-fiction, etc.).,,,,,The standard variety is a superimposed, socially prestigious dialect of a language.,,It is based on a selected variety, the local speech of an area considered the nation’s political and cultural center.,,It is superimposed from the upper level of the society over the range of regional dialects. It is,officially standardized.,,e.g. Standard American English,,,Standard British English,,,Standard Australian English,,,,London dialect,--- standard dialect of English,,Mandarin,--- standard dialect of Chinese,,,It was originally the local dialect of an area which is considered the nation’s political and commercial center.,,,,8.4 Pidgin and Creole,,,A pidgin,is a special language variety that mixes or blends languages and it is used by people who speak different languages for restricted purposes such as trading.,,Formed by combining a European language and local one,,Limited vocabulary and very simple grammatical structure,,Pidgin may be extended to Creole,,,,,Origin,: Two social groups don’t share a language; need to communicate; mix their languages to create a,pidgin,. One group usually more powerful than the other.,,,,Lexicon,limited in size. Usually taken from language of more powerful group.,,grass belong face,‘beard’,,lamp belong Jesus,‘sun’,,Syntax,simple but systematic. Usually simplified form of the syntax of the language of the,less,powerful group. No movements, no sentences within sentences few verb and noun endings.,,,,,Social attitudes,: Attitudes toward pidgins are generally negative. Social discrimination.,,Example:,,Tok Pisin (New Guinea):,,Now onefella master belong company, him he-catch-im me, me cook belong him again.,‘Now a boss at the company, he caught me and I became his cook again.’,,,,Creole languages,Origin,:,Result of children acquiring a pidgin as their,first,language.,,Lexicon,:,More extensive than a pidgin.,,Syntax,:,Richer devices than a pidgin.,,Acquisition,:,By children as a first language.,,Social attitudes,:,Generally negative.,,,,Creole Languages,,AFRO-SEMINOLE CREOLE,USA,,,AMAPA CREOLE,Brazil,,,ANGOLAR,São Tomé e Príncipe,,ARABIC, BABALIA CREOLE,Chad,,ARABIC, SUDANESE CREOLE,Sudan,,AUKAN [DJK],Suriname,,BAHAMAS CREOLE ENGLISH,Bahamas,,BAJAN [BJS],Barbados,,BAY ISLANDS CREOLE ENGLISH,Honduras,,BISLAMA,Vanuatu,,CAFUNDO CREOLE,Brazil,,,CHAVACANO,Philippines,,CRIOULO, UPPER GUINEA,Guinea-Bissau,,CUTCHI-SWAHILI,Kenya,,FERNANDO PO CREOLE ENGLISH,Equatorial Guinea,,,FRENCH GUIANESE CREOLE FRENCH,French Guiana,,GUYANESE CREOLE ENGLISH,Guyana,,HAITIAN CREOLE FRENCH,Haiti,,HAWAII CREOLE ENGLISH,USA,,,INDO-PORTUGUESE,Sri Lanka,,INDONESIAN, PERANAKAN,Indonesia,,KARIPUNA CREOLE FRENCH,Brazil,,KITUBA,Democratic Republic of Congo,,KORLAI CREOLE PORTUGUESE,India,,,,The difference between pidgin and creole,A pidgin is “ a language with a reduced range of structure and use,,with NO native speakers,.” It grows up among people who do not share a common language but who want to communicate with each other.A creole is “a pidgin-like language variety which has become the mother tongue of a community,” and therefore,has native speakers.,,,8.5 Bilingualism and diglossia,,,Bilingualism:,,1.,the ability to speak two languages.,2.,the use of two languages, as in a community.,,,,Diglossia,(雙變體): two varieties of a language exist side by side throughout the community with each having a definite role to play. Each variety is the appropriate language for certain situations with very slight overlapping.,,A sociolinguistic phenomenon in which complementary social,functions,are distributed between a prestigious or formal variety and a common or colloquial variety of a language.,Examples:,,,Switzerland:,,High German as standard language,,,Swiss German as vernacular,,Haiti:,,French as standard language,,,Haitian creole as vernacular,A more important distinction,,is in the functional allocation,,,What is the difference between bilingualism and diglossia?,Bilingualism :involves two languages,,Diglossia: involves two distinct varieties of a language (B. Spolsky),,*,A different explanation:,,The term bilingualism is typically used to describe the two languages of an individual. When the focus changes to two languages in society, the term often used is diglossia.,,,Fishman (1972),,,Diglossia,,,,+,–,Bilingualism,+,+B +D,+B –D,,–,–B +D,–B –D,Examples:,,+B +D : Paraguay (Spanish and Guarani),,+B - D : Belgium (German and French),,- B +D : Russian,,- B - D : Hypothetical,,,Diglossia :Function,,H,L,Sermon,X,,Instruction to servants,,X,Speech in parliament,X,,University lecture,X,,Conversation with friends,,X,Newspaper editorial,X,,Etc.,,,,,Diglossia :Prestige,The speakers regard H as superior to L in a number of respects.,,E.g. H is considered more educated, more beautiful, more logical, better able to express important thoughts, etc.,,,Poliglossia (Platt, 1977),A Research in Malaysia,,Formal English,,Malay,,Mandarin,,Malay-English,,Other Chinese languages,,Colloquial Malay,,,,THE END,,,