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1、[Reading Part] 1.1 Beowulf Historical Background The epic poem Beowulf, written in Old English, is the earliest existing Germanic epic and one of four surviving Anglo-Saxon manuscripts. Although Beowulf was written by an anonymous Englishman in Old English, the tale takes place in that part of Sc

2、andinavia from which Germanic tribes emigrated to England. Beowulf comes from Geatland, the southeastern part of what is now Sweden. Hrothgar, king of the Danes, lives near what is now Leire, on Zealand, Denmark’s largest island. The Beowulf epic contains three major tales about Beowulf and several

3、 minor tales that reflect a rich Germanic oral tradition of myths, legends, and folklore. The Beowulf warriors have a foot in both the Bronze and Iron Ages. Their mead-halls reflect the wealthy living of the Bronze Age Northmen, and their wooden shields, wood-shafted spears, and bronze-hilted sword

4、s are those of the Bronze Age warrior. However, they carry iron-tipped spears, and their best swords have iron or iron-edged blades. Beowulf also orders an iron shield for his fight with a dragon. Iron replaced bronze because it produced a blade with a cutting edge that was stronger and sharper. The

5、 Northmen learned how to forge iron in about 500 B.C. Although they had been superior to the European Celts in bronze work, it was the Celts who taught them how to make and design iron work. Iron was accessible everywhere in Scandinavia, usually in the form of “bog-iron” found in the layers of peat

6、in peat bogs. The Beowulf epic also reveals interesting aspects of the lives of the Anglo-Saxons who lived in England at the time of the anonymous Beowulf poet. The Germanic tribes, including the Angles, the Saxons, and the Jutes, invaded England from about A.D. 450 to 600.By the time of the Beowu

7、lf poet ,Anglo-Saxon in English was neither primitive nor uncultured. Although the Beowulf manuscript was written in about A.D. 1000, it was not discovered until the seventeenth century. B Scholars do not know whether Beowulf is the sole surviving epic from a flourishing Anglo-Saxon literary perio

8、d that produced other great epics or whether it was unique even in its own time. C Many scholars think that the epic was probably written sometime between the late seventh century and the early ninth century. If they are correct, the original manuscript was probably lost during the ninth-century Vik

9、ing invasions of Anglia, in which the Danes destroyed the Anglo-Saxon monasteries and their great libraries. However, other scholars think that the poet’s favorable attitude toward the Danes must place the epic’s composition after the Viking invasions and at the start of the eleventh century, when t

10、his Beowulf manuscript was written. The identity of the Beowulf poet is also uncertain. D He apparently was a Christian who loved the pagan heroic tradition of his ancestors and blended the values of the pagan hero with the Christian values of his own country and time. Because he wrote in the Angl

11、ian dialect, he probably was either a monk in a monastery or a poet in an Anglo-Saxon court located north of the Thames River. Appeal and Value Beowulf interests contemporary readers for many reasons. First, it is an outstanding adventure story. Grendel, Grendel’s mother, and the dragon are marv

12、elous characters, and each fight is unique, action-packed, and exciting. Second, Beowulf is a very appealing hero. He is the perfect warrior, combining extraordinary strength, skill, courage, and loyalty. Like Hercules, he devotes his life to making the world a safer place. He chooses to risk death

13、in order to help other people, and he faces his inevitable death with heroism and dignity. Third, the Beowulf poet is interested in the psychological aspects of human behavior. For example, the Danish hero’s welcoming speech illustrates his jealousy of Beowulf. The behavior of Beowulf’s warriors in

14、the dragon fight reveals their cowardice. Beowulf’s attitudes toward heroism reflect his maturity and experience, while King Hrothgar’s attitudes toward life show the experiences of an aged nobleman. Finally, the Beowulf poet exhibits a mature appreciation of the transitory nature of human life and

15、 achievement. In Beowulf, as in the major epics of other cultures, the hero must create a meaningful life in a world that is often dangerous and uncaring. He must accept the inevitability of death. He chooses to reject despair; instead, he takes pride in himself and in his accomplishments, and he va

16、lues human relationships. 1. According to paragraph 1, which of the following is true about Beowulf? A. It is the only manuscript from the Anglo-Saxon period. B. The original story was written in a German dialect. C. The author did not sign this name to the poem. D. It is one of several epics

17、 from the first century. 2. The word which in the passage refers to A. tale B. Scandinavia C. manuscripts D. Old English 3. Why does the author mention “bog-iron” in paragraph 2? A. To demonstrate the availability of iron in Scandinavia B. To prove that iron was better than bronze for weapon

18、s C. To argue that the Celts provided the materials to make iron. D. To suggest that 500 B.C. was the date that the Iron Age began. 4. Which of the sentences below best expresses the information in the highlighted statement in the passage? The other choices change the meaning or leave out importa

19、nt information. A. Society in Anglo-Saxons was both advanced and cultured. B. The society of the Anglo-Saxons was not primitive or cultured. C. The Anglo-Saxons had a society that was primitive, not cultured. D. English during the Anglo-Saxon society was advanced, not cultured. 5. The word uniq

20、ue in the passage is closet in meaning to A. old B. rare C. perfect D. weak 6. According to paragraph 4, why do many scholars believe that the original manuscript for Beowulf was lost? A. Because it is not like other manuscripts. B. Because many libraries were burned. C. Because the Danes we

21、re allies of the Anglo-Saxons D. Because no copies were found of the monasteries 7. In paragraph 4, the author suggests that Beowulf was discovered in the A. first century B. ninth century C. eleven century D. seventeenth century 8. Why does the author of this passage use the word “apparently

22、” in paragraph 5? A. He is not certain that the author of Beowulf was a Christian. B. He is mentioning facts that are obvious to the readers. C. He is giving an example from a historical reference. D. He is introducing evidence about the author of Beowulf. 9. The author compared the Beowulf cha

23、racter to Hercules because A. they are both example of the ideal hero B. their adventures with a dragon are very similar C. the speeches that they make are inspiring D. they lived at about the same time 10. The word exhibits in the passage is closet in meaning to A. creates B. demonstrates C

24、. assumes D. terminates 11. The word reject in the passage is closet in meaning to A. manage B. evaluate C. refuse D. confront 12. Look at the four squares [ ] that show where the following sentence could be inserted in the passage. Moreover, they disagree as to whether this Beowulf is a co

25、py of an earlier manuscript. Where could the sentence best be added? Click on a square [ ] to insert the sentence in the passage. 13. Directions: An introduction for a short summary of the passage appears below. Complete the summary by selecting the THREE answer choices that mention the most imp

26、ortant points in the passage. Some sentences do not belong in the summary because they express ideas that are not included in the passage or are minor points from the passage. This question is worth 2 points. Beowulf is the oldest Anglo-Saxon epic poem that has survived to the present day. l l

27、l Answer Choices 14 / 14 A. The Northmen were adept in crafting tools and weapons made of bronze, but the Celts ere superior in designing and working in iron. B. In the Viking invasions of England, the Danish armies destroyed monasteries, some of which contained extensive libraries. C. Kin

28、g Hrothgar and Beowulf become friends at the end of their lives, after having spent decades opposing each other on the battlefield. D. The poem chronicles life in Anglo-Saxon society during the Bronze and Iron Ages when Germanic tribes were invading England. E. Although Beowulf was written by an a

29、nonymous poet, probably a Christian, about 1000A.D., it was not fould until the seventeenth century. F. Beowulf is still interesting because it has engaging characters, and adventures plot, and an appreciation for human behavior and relationships. 1.2 Thermoregulation Mammals and birds gene

30、rally maintain body temperature within a narrow range (36–38°C for most mammals and 39–42°C for most birds) that is usually considerably warmer than the environment. Because heat always flows from a warm object to cooler surroundings, birds and mammals must counteract the constant heat loss. This ma

31、intenance of warm body temperature depends on several key adaptations. The most basic mechanism is the high metabolic rate of endothermy itself. Endotherms can produce large amounts of metabolic heat that replace the flow of heat to the environment, and they can vary heat production to match changin

32、g rates of heat loss. Heat production is increased by such muscle activity as moving or shivering. In some mammals, certain hormones can cause mitochondria to increase their metabolic activity and produce heat instead of ATP. This nonshivering thermogenesis (NST) takes place throughout the body, but

33、 some mammals also have a tissue called brown fat in the neck and between the shoulders that is specialized for rapid heat production. Through shivering and NST, mammals and birds in cold environments can increase their metabolic heat production by as much as 5 to 10 times above the minimal levels t

34、hat occur in warm conditions. Another major thermoregulatory adaptation that evolved in mammals and birds is insulation (hair, feathers, and fat layers), which reduces the flow of heat and lowers the energy cost of keeping warm. Most land mammals and birds react to cold by raising their fur or feat

35、hers, thereby trapping a thicker layer of air. A Humans rely more on a layer of fat just beneath the skin as insulation; goose bumps are a vestige of hair-raising left over from our furry ancestors. B Vasodilation and vasoconstriction also regulate heat exchange and may contribute to regional temper

36、ature differences within the animal. C For example, heat loss from a human is reduced when arms and legs cool to several degrees below the temperature of the body core, where most vital organs are located. D Hair loses most of its insulating power when wet. Marine mammals such as whales and seals

37、have a very thick layer of insulation fat called blubber, just under the skin. Marine mammals swim in water colder than their body core temperature, and many species spend at least part of the year in nearly freezing polar seas. The loss of heat to water occurs 50 to 100 times more rapidly than heat

38、 loss to air, and the skin temperature of a marine mammal is close to water temperature. Even so, the blubber insulation is so effective that marine mammals maintain body core temperatures of about 36–38°C with metabolic rates about the same as those of land mammals of similar size. The flippers or

39、tail of a whale or seal lack insulating blubber, but countercurrent heat exchangers greatly reduce heat loss in these extremities, as they do in the legs of many birds. Through metabolic heat production, insulation, and vascular adjustments, birds and mammals are capable of astonishing feats of the

40、rmoregulation. For example, small birds called chickadees, which weigh only 20 grams, can remain active and hold body temperature nearly constant at 40°C in environmental temperatures as low as –40°C—as long as they have enough food to supply the large amount of energy necessary for heat production.

41、 Many mammals and birds live in places where thermoregulation requires cooling off as well as warming. For example, when a marine mammal moves into warm seas, as many whales do when they reproduce, excess metabolic heat is removed by vasodilation of numerous blood vessels in the outer layer of the

42、skin. In hot climates or when vigorous exercise adds large amounts of metabolic heat to the body, many terrestrial mammals and birds may allow body temperature to rise by several degrees, which enhances heat loss by increasing the temperature gradient between the body and a warm environment. Evapor

43、ative cooling often plays a key role in dissipating the body heat. If environmental temperature is above body temperature, animals gain heat from the environment as well as from metabolism, and evaporation is the only way to keep body temperature from rising rapidly. Panting is important in birds an

44、d many mammals. Some birds have a pouch richly supplied with blood vessels in the floor of the mouth; fluttering the pouch increases evaporation. Pigeons can use evaporative cooling to keep body temperature close to 40°C in air temperatures as high as 60°C, as long as they have sufficient water. Man

45、y terrestrial mammals have sweat glands controlled by the nervous system. Other mechanisms that promote evaporative cooling include spreading saliva on body surfaces, an adaptation of some kangaroos and rodents for combating severe heat stress. Some bats use both saliva and urine to enhance evaporat

46、ive cooling. 14. According to paragraph 1, the most fundamental adaption to maintain body temperature is A. the heat generated by the metabolism B. a shivering reflex in the muscles C. migration to a warmer environment D. higher caloric intakes to match heat loss 15. Based on information in

47、paragraph 1, which of the following best explains the term “thermogenesis”? A. Heat loss that must be reversed B. The adaption of brown fat tissue in the neck C. The maintenance of healthy environmental conditions D. Conditions that affect the metabolism 16. Which of the sentence below best exp

48、resses the information in the highlighted statement in the passage? The other choices change the meaning or leave out important information. A. An increase in heat production causes muscle activity such as moving or shivering. B. Muscle activity like moving and shivering will increase heat product

49、ion. C. Moving and shivering are muscle activities that increase with heat. D. When heat increases, the production of muscle activity also increase. 17. The word minimal in the passage is closet in meaning to A. most recent B. most active C. newest D. smallest 18. In paragraph 2, the author

50、 explains the concept of vasodilation and vasoconstriction by A. describing the evolution in our ancestors B. giving an example of heat loss in the extremities C. comparing the process in humans and animals D. identifying various types of insulation 19. The word regulate in the passage is clos

51、et in meaning to A. protect B. create C. reduce D. control 20. According to paragraph 3, why do many marine animals require a layer of blubber? A. Because marine animals have lost their hair during evolution B. Because heat is lost in water as fast as it is in air C. Because dry hair does no

52、t insulate marine animals D. Because they are so large that they require more insulation 21. The word those in the passage refers to A. marine animals B. core temperatures C. land mammals D. metabolic rates 22. Why does the author mention chickadees in paragraph 4? A. To discuss an animal th

53、at regulates heat very well B. To demonstrate why chickadees have to eat so much C. To mention an exception to the rules of thermoregulation D. To give a reason for heat production in small animals 23. In paragraph 6, the author states that evaporative cooling is often accomplished by all of the

54、 following methods EXCEPT A. by spreading saliva over the area B. by urinating on the body C. by panting or fluttering a pouch D. by immersing the themselves in water 24. The word enhance in the passage is closet in meaning to A. simplify B. improve C. replace D. interrupt 25. Look at t

55、he four squares [ ] that show where the following sentence could be inserted in the passage. The insulating power of a layer of fur or feathers mainly depends on how much still air the layer traps. Where could the sentence best be added? Click on a square [ ] to insert the sentence in the passa

56、ge. 26. Directions: An introduction for a short summary of the passage appears below. Complete the summary by selecting the THREE answer choices that mention the most important points in the passage. Some sentences do not belong in the summary because they express ideas that are not included in the

57、 passage or are minor points from the passage. This question is worth 2 points. Thermoregulation is the process by which animals control body temperatures within healthy limits. l l l Answer Choices A. Although hair can be a very efficient insulation when it is dry and it can be raised, hair

58、becomes ineffective when it is submerged in cold water. B. Some animals with few adoptions for thermoregulation migrate to moderate climates to avoid the extreme weather in the polar regions and the tropics. C. Mammals and birds use insulation to mitigate heat loss, including hair and feathers tha

59、t can be raised to trap air as well as fat or blubber under the skin. D. Some birds have a special pouch in the mouth, which can be fluttered to increase evaporation and decrease their body temperatures by as much as 20℃. E. Endotherms generate heat by increasing muscle activity, by releasing horm

60、ones into their blood streams, or by producing heat in brown fat tissues. F. Panting, sweating, and spreading saliva or urine on their bodies are all options for the evaporative cooling of animals in hot environmental conditions. 1.3 Social Readjustment Scales Holmes and Rahe (1967) develop

61、ed the Social Readjustment Rating Scale (SRRS) to measure life change as a form of stress. A The scale assigns numerical values to 43 major life events that are supposed to reflect the magnitude of the readjustment required by each change. In responding to the scale, respondents are asked to indicat

62、e how often they experienced any of these 43 events during a certain time period (typically, the past year). The person then adds up the numbers associated with each event checked. B The SRRS and similar scales have been used in thousands of studies by researchers all over the world. C Overall, the

63、se studies have shown that people with higher scores on the SRRS tend to be more vulnerable to many kinds of physical illness—and many types of psychological problems as well (Derogatis & Coons, 1993; Gruen, 1993; Scully, Tosi & Banning, 2000). D More recently, however, experts have criticized this

64、research, citing problems with the methods used and raising questions about the meaning of the findings (Critelli & Ee, 1996; Monroe & McQuaid, 1994; Wethington, 2000). First, the assumption that the SRRS measures change exclusively has been shown to be inaccurate. We now have ample evidence that t

65、he desirability of events affects adaptational outcomes more than the amount of change that they require (Turner & Wheaton, 1995). Thus, it seems prudent to view the SRRS as a measure of diverse forms of stress, rather than as a measure of change-related stress (McLean & Link, 1994). Second, the SR

66、RS fails to take into account differences among people in their subjective perception of how stressful an event is. For instance, while divorce may deserve a stress value of 73 for most people, a particular person’s divorce might generate much less stress and merit a value of only 25. Third, many of the events listed on the SRRS and similar scales are highly ambiguous, leading people to be inconsistent as to which events they report experiencing (Monroe & McQuaid, 1994). For instance, what qual