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1、 精品文檔 Revision Contents: Unit 1 Language and Learning 1. What are the major views of language? What are their implications to language teaching or learning? Structural View : It sees language as a linguistic system made up of various subsystem: from phonological,

2、 morphological, lexical, etc. to sentence. Each language has a finite number of such structural items. To learn a language means to learn these structural items so as to be able to understand and produce language.

3、 Audiolingual approach: The teaching of a second language through imitation, repetition, and reinforcement. It emphasizes the teaching of speaking and listening before reading and writing and the use of mother tongue in the classroom is not allowed. The princ

4、ipal features of audiolingualism are an emphasis on structures in the language which can be learned as regular patterns of verbal behavior and the belief that learning is a process of habit formation. Functional View : It sees language

5、 as a linguistic system but also as a means for doing things. Most of our day-to- day language use involves functional activities: offering, suggesting, advising, apologizing, etc. Therefore, learners learn a language in order to do things with it. To perform functio

6、ns, learners need to know how to combine the grammatical rules and the vocabulary to express notions that perform the functions. Communicative approaches are based on this view of language. Interactional View : It considers language as a communicati

7、ve tool, whose main use is to build up and maintain social relations between people. Therefore, learners not only need to know the grammar and vocabulary of the language, but also need to know the rules for using them in a whole range of communicative context.

8、 Some of the language learning approaches and methods based on this view of language are: Strategic interaction; communicative approaches. 2. What are the major Views on language learning ? What are their implications to language teaching? Behaviouralist theory

9、Based on the theory of conditioning, Skinner suggested language is also a form of behaviour. It can be learned the same way as an animal is trained to respond to stimuli. This theory of language learning is referred to as behaviouralism, which was adopted for some time by the language teaching profe

10、ssion, particularly in America. One influential result is the audio- lingual method, which involves endless “ listen and repeat ” drilling activities. The idea of this method is that language is learned by constant repetition and the reinforcement of the teacher. Mistakes were immediately corr

11、ected, and correct utterances were immediately praised. This method is still used in many parts of the 精品文檔 精品文檔 world today. Cognitive theory It seems to be largely

12、 the result of Noam Chomsky ’ s reaction to Skinner ural’ s behavio theory, which led to the revival of structural linguistics. The key point of Chomsky’ s theory is reflected in his most famous question: if language is a learned behaviour, how can a child prod

13、uce a sentence that has never been said by others before. One influential idea is that students should be allowed to create their own sentences based on their understanding of certain rules. This idea is clearly in opposition to the A

14、udio-Lingual Method. According to the cognitive theory, learning is a process in which the learner actively tries to make sense of data. The basic technique associated with a cognitive theory of language learning is the problem-solving task.

15、 Constructivist theory : Learning is a complex cognitive process in which the learner constructs meaning based on his or her own experiences and what he /she already knows. Implications for classroom teaching

16、 Teaching should be built based on what learners already know and engage learners in learning activities. It is believed that education is used to develop the mind, not just to rotate or recall what is learned.

17、 Teachers need to design activities to interact with learners to foster inventive, creative, critical learners. Teachers must balance an understanding of the habits, characteristics as well as personalities of indiv

18、idual learners with an understanding of the means of arousing learners ’ interest and curiosity for learning. Socio-constructivist theory: It emphasizes interaction and engagement with the target language in a social context based on the concept

19、of ‘ Zone of Proximal Development ’ (ZPD) and scaffolding. Learning is best achieved through the dynamic interaction between the teacher and the learner and between learners. With the teacher ’ s scaffolding through questions and explanations, or w ith a

20、more capable peers ’ support, the learner can move to a higher level of understanding and extend his / her skills and knowledge to the fullest potential. Unit 2 Communicative Principles and Activities 1. The goal of CLT is to develop students communicative’ competence. 2. Wh

21、at is communicative compentence ? Try to list some of its components and their implication to teaching. Communicative compentence refers to both the knowledge about the language and the knowledge about how to use the language appropriately in communicative situations. According to Hedge,

22、it includes five components. Linguistic competence --- knowledge of the language itself, its form and meaning Pragmatic competence --- the appropriate use of language in social context Discourse competence --- one’ s ability to create coherent written text or conversation 精品文檔

23、 and the ability to understand them (ability to express or to understand a topic logically and coherently by effectively employing or comprehending the cohesive markers used in the discourse /ability to initiate, develop, enter, interrupt, check, or confirm in a conversation) Strategic co

24、mpetence --- strategies one employs when there is communication breakdown due to lack of resources Fluency ---- one’ s ability to ‘ link units of speechethertog with facility and without strain or inappropriate slowness or undue hesitation Implications for teaching and learning: L

25、inguistic competence Teachers need to help learners ----achieve accuracy in the grammatical forms of the language; ----pronounce the forms accurately; ----use stress, rhythm, and intonation to express meaning; ----build a range of vocabulary; ----learn the script and spelling rules

26、; ----achieve accuracy in syntax and word formation. Pragmatic competence Teachers need to help learners ---learn the relationship between grammatical forms and functions; ---use stress and intonation to express attitude and emotion; ---learn the scale of formality; ---understan

27、d and use emotive tone; ---use the grammatical rules of language; ---select language forms appropriate to topic, listener, or setting, etc. Discourse competence Teachers need to help learners ----take longer turns, use discourse markers and open and close conversations; ----appreci

28、ate and be able to produce contextualised written texts in a variety of genres; ----be able to use cohesive devices in reading and writing texts; ----be able to cope with authentic texts. Strategic competence Teachers need to enable learners ----to take risks in using the language;

29、 ----to use a range of communicative strategies; ---- to learn the language needed to engage in some of these strategies, e.g. ‘ What do you call a thing that/person who ’ Fluency Teachers need to help learners -----deal with the information gap of real discourse; -----process lan

30、guage and respond appropriately with a degree of ease; ----- be able to respond with reasonable speed in ‘ real time ”. 3. What is communicative language teaching? Communicative language teaching began in Britain in the 1960s as a replacement to 精品文檔 Situational Language Teachin

31、g. This was partly in response to Chomsky's criticisms of structural theories of language and partly based on the theories of British functional linguistics, as well as American sociolinguists. The goal of communicative language approaches is to create a realistic context for language acquisition

32、 in the classroom. The focus is on functional language usage and the ability to learners to express their own ideas, feelings, attitudes, desires and needs. Open ended questioning and problem-solving activities and exchanges of personal information are utilized as the primary means of communicati

33、on. Students usually work with authentic materials in small groups on communication activities, during which they receive practice in negotiating meaning. This method is learner-centered and emphasizes communication and real-life situations. The role of the instructor in CLT is quite different fr

34、om traditional teaching methods. In the traditional classroom, the teacher is in charge and "controls" the learning. In CLT the teacher serves as more of a facilitator, allowing students to be in charge of their own learning. 4. Principles in communicative language teaching Communication pr

35、inciple: Activities that involve real communication promote learning. Task principle: Activities in which language is used for carrying out meaningful tasks promote learning. Meaningfulness principle: Language that is meaningful to the learning supports the learning process. 5. Str

36、ong version and week version A weak version: Learners first acquire language as a structural system and then learn how to use it in communication. It regards overt teaching of language forms and functions as necessary means for helping learners to develop the ability to use them for communicat

37、ion. A strong version: Strong version: The strong version claims that ‘ language is acquire through communication ’ . Learners discover the structural system in the process of learning how to communicate. It regards experiences of using the language as the main means or necessary

38、 conditions for learning a language as they provide the experience for learners to see how language is used in communication. 5. List some of the communicative activities. 1) Functional communicative activities Identifying pictures Discovering identical pairs Discovering sequence or locations

39、 Discovering missing information Discovering missing features Discovering “ secrets ” Communicating patterns and pictures Communicative models 精品文檔 精品文檔 Discovering differences Following directions Reconstructing story-sequences Pooling information to solve

40、a problem 2) Social interaction activities Role-playing through cued dialogues Role-playing through cues and information Role-playing through situation and goals Role-playing through debate and discussion Large-scale simulation activities improvisation 6. Main features commun

41、icative activities Some main features of communicative activities (Ellis 1990) The six criteria notes 1. Communictive purpose A need to know something.---’an information gap’ 2. Communicative desire A need to do something 3. Content, not form Concentrate on what to do and what

42、to say in the activity, not how to say certain forms. 4. Variety of language Students are free to use all kinds of language forms and skills, not just certain forms given by teacher. 5. No teacher intervention Students work by themselves. 6. No materials control Students make use

43、of materials 7. The Task-based Approach A task-based approach sees the language process as one of learning through doing. It stresses the importance to combine form-focused teaching with communication-focused teaching. The task-based approach aims at providing opportunities for th

44、e learners to experiment with and explore both spoken and written language through learning activities which are designed to engage learners in the authentic, practical and functional use of language for meaningful purposes. Task -based Learning offers an alternative for language teachers. In

45、a task-based lesson the teacher doesn't pre-determine what language will be studied, the lesson is based around the completion of a central task and the language studied is determined by what happens as the students complete it. So it aims to provide learners with a natural context for languag

46、e use ．As learners work to complete a task ，they have abundant opportunity to interact ．Such interaction is thought 精品文檔 to facilitate language acquisition as learners have to work to understand each other and to express their own meaning By so doing they have to check to

47、 see if they have comprehended correctly and at times they have to seek clarification By interacting with others they get to listen to language which may be beyond their present ability but which may be assimilated into their knowledge of the target language for use at a later time Task pr

48、esented in the form of a problem-solving negotiation between knowledge that the learner holds and new knowledge 7. What is a task? Any one of the following definitions is ok: A task is “ a piece of work undertaken for oneself or for others, freely or for some reward. Thus examples of tas

49、ks include painting a fence, dressing a child. In other words, by ‘ task ’ is meant the hundred and one things people do in everyday life, at work, at play and in between ” . -------- Long (1985) [A task is] an activity which require learners to arrive at an outcome from given information t

50、hrough some process of thought, and which allows teachers to control and regulate that process. ------ Prabhu (1987) a piece of classroom work which involve learners in comprehending, manipulating, producing or interacting in the target language while their attention is principally focused

51、 on meaning rather than on form. ----Nunan (1989) Tasks are always activities where the target language is used by the learner for a communicative purpose (goal) in order to achieve an outcome. ” A task is an activity in which students use the target language to do something, usually with

52、 a non-linguistic purpose. 8. A task is believed to have four components: a purpose, a context, a process, and a product. 9. What is PPP model? In this model, a language classroom consists of three stages: Presentation of new language item in a context---controlled practice (drilling

53、, repetition, dialogue reading, etc)---production of the language in a meaningful way (a role-play, a drama, an interview, etc.) 10. A task-based language classroom consists of three stages. They are pre-task stage, the stage of task cycle, and the stage of language focus. Unit 3 1. The

54、overall language ability required in the 2001 National English Curriculum includes the following aspects language knowledge, language skills, learning strategies, affects and cultural understanding. 2. What is a syllabus? A syllabus is a specification of what takes place in the classroom, w

55、hich usually contains the aims and contents of teaching and sometimes contains suggestions of methodology. 3. What is curriculum? A curriculum, however, provides (1) general statements about the rationale about 精品文檔 language, language learning and language teaching, (2) detailed sp

56、ecification of aims, objectives and targets learning purpose, and (3) implementations of a program. In some sense, a syllabus is part of a curriculum. Syllabus is often used to refer to something similar to a language teaching approach, whereas curriculum refers to a specific document of a langua

57、ge program developed for a particular country or region. 4. Designing principles for the National English Curriculum 1) Aim for educating all students, and emphasize quality-oriented education. The English curriculum aims education for all students and stresses q

58、uality-oriented education. The new standards particularly show concerns over students ’ affectiveeeds n as well as other learning needs in order to stimulate their interests in learning, help them experience the sense of success, and gain self-confidence in learning. Its overall

59、objective is to develop students ’ comprehensive abilities in using the language and to improve their cultural quality, to develop their practical skills, as well as to cultivate their creative spirit. 2) Promote learner-centeredness, and respect individual differences. St

60、udents ’ overall development is the motivation and goal of t he English curriculum. Therefore, its objective, the teaching process, the assessment procedures as well as the development of teaching resources should all reflect the principle of learner-centered approach. Classroo

61、m teaching should become a process during which students are guided by the teachers in constructing knowledge, developing skills, being active in thinking, demonstrating personal characters, developing intelligence and broadening their views and visions. Teaching

62、should take full consideration of students ’individual differences in learning process and their learning styles and teaching should be flexible in using teaching methods, resources and ways of assessment so as to make teaching beneficial to all kinds of students.

63、 3. Develop competence-based objectives, and allow flexibility and adaptability. The overall aim of the curriculum or nine-year compulsory education is to develop students ’comprehensive abilities in language use. Such abilities are grounded in the

64、 development of language skills, language knowledge, affects, cultural awareness and learning strategies. The English curriculum for nine-year compulsory education together with the related senior high school English curriculum divide the English teaching objectives into

65、 nine levels. Each level is described in terms of what students can do with the language. It is thus designed to reflect the progressive nature of students ’ language development during the process of school education so as to ensure the integrity, flexibility and openn

66、ess of the curriculum. 4) Pay close attention to the learning process, and advocate experiential learning and participation. Modern foreign language teaching emphasizes the learning process and advocates the use of different teaching approaches and methods for the purpose of facilitating students ’ language development. During the process of learning English in nine-year compulsory education, students should be encouraged to discover rules of the language, maste