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1、 Revision Contents: Unit 1 Language and Learning 1. What are the major views of language? What are their implications to language teaching or learning? Structural View: It sees language as a linguistic system made up of various subsystem: from phonological, morphological, lexical, etc. to s

2、entence. Each language has a finite number of such structural items. To learn a language means to learn these structural items so as to be able to understand and produce language. Audiolingual approach: The teaching of a second language through imitation, repetition, and reinforcement. It emphasi

3、zes the teaching of speaking and listening before reading and writing and the use of mother tongue in the classroom is not allowed. The principal features of audiolingualism are an emphasis on structures in the language which can be learned as regular patterns of verbal behavior and the belief that

4、learning is a process of habit formation. Functional View: It sees language as a linguistic system but also as a means for doing things. Most of our day-to- day language use involves functional activities: offering, suggesting, advising, apologizing, etc. Therefore, learners learn a language in

5、order to do things with it. To perform functions, learners need to know how to combine the grammatical rules and the vocabulary to express notions that perform the functions. Communicative approaches are based on this view of language. Interactional View: It considers language as a communicativ

6、e tool, whose main use is to build up and maintain social relations between people. Therefore, learners not only need to know the grammar and vocabulary of the language, but also need to know the rules for using them in a whole range of communicative context. Some of the language learning approach

7、es and methods based on this view of language are: Strategic interaction; communicative approaches. 2. What are the major Views on language learning? What are their implications to language teaching? Behaviouralist theory Based on the theory of conditioning, Skinner suggested language is also

8、 a form of behaviour. It can be learned the same way as an animal is trained to respond to stimuli. This theory of language learning is referred to as behaviouralism, which was adopted for some time by the language teaching profession, particularly in America. One influential result is the audio-l

9、ingual method, which involves endless “l(fā)isten and repeat” drilling activities. The idea of this method is that language is learned by constant repetition and the reinforcement of the teacher. Mistakes were immediately corrected, and correct utterances were immediately praised. This method is still u

10、sed in many parts of the world today. 精選文檔 Cognitive theory It seems to be largely the result of Noam Chomsky’s reaction to Skinner’s behavioural theory, which led to the revival of structural linguistics. The key point of Chomsky’s theory is reflected in his most famous question: if language

11、is a learned behaviour, how can a child produce a sentence that has never been said by others before. One influential idea is that students should be allowed to create their own sentences based on their understanding of certain rules. This idea is clearly in opposition to the Audio-Lingual Method.

12、 According to the cognitive theory, learning is a process in which the learner actively tries to make sense of data. The basic technique associated with a cognitive theory of language learning is the problem-solving task. Constructivist theory: Learning is a complex cognitive process in which the l

13、earner constructs meaning based on his or her own experiences and what he /she already knows. Implications for classroom teaching Teaching should be built based on what learners already know and engage learners in learning activities. It is believed that education is used to develop the mind, not

14、 just to rotate or recall what is learned. Teachers need to design activities to interact with learners to foster inventive, creative, critical learners. Teachers must balance an understanding of the habits, characteristics as well as personalities of individual learners with an understanding of t

15、he means of arousing learners’ interest and curiosity for learning. Socio-constructivist theory: It emphasizes interaction and engagement with the target language in a social context based on the concept of ‘Zone of Proximal Development’(ZPD) and scaffolding. Learning is best achieved through the

16、dynamic interaction between the teacher and the learner and between learners. With the teacher’s scaffolding through questions and explanations, or with a more capable peers’ support, the learner can move to a higher level of understanding and extend his / her skills and knowledge to the fullest pot

17、ential. Unit 2 Communicative Principles and Activities 1. The goal of CLT is to develop students’ communicative competence. 2. What is communicative compentence? Try to list some of its components and their implication to teaching. Communicative compentence refers to both the knowledge about t

18、he language and the knowledge about how to use the language appropriately in communicative situations. According to Hedge, it includes five components. Linguistic competence --- knowledge of the language itself, its form and meaning Pragmatic competence --- the appropriate use of language in soci

19、al context 精選文檔 Discourse competence --- one’s ability to create coherent written text or conversation and the ability to understand them (ability to express or to understand a topic logically and coherently by effectively employing or comprehending the cohesive markers used in the discourse /ab

20、ility to initiate, develop, enter, interrupt, check, or confirm in a conversation) Strategic competence --- strategies one employs when there is communication breakdown due to lack of resources Fluency---- one’s ability to ‘link units of speech together with facility and without strain or inapprop

21、riate slowness or undue hesitation Implications for teaching and learning: Linguistic competence Teachers need to help learners ----achieve accuracy in the grammatical forms of the language; ----pronounce the forms accurately; ----use stress, rhythm, and intonation to express meaning; -

22、---build a range of vocabulary; ----learn the script and spelling rules; ----achieve accuracy in syntax and word formation. Pragmatic competence Teachers need to help learners ---learn the relationship between grammatical forms and functions; ---use stress and intonation to express attitude

23、 and emotion; ---learn the scale of formality; ---understand and use emotive tone; ---use the grammatical rules of language; ---select language forms appropriate to topic, listener, or setting, etc. Discourse competence Teachers need to help learners ----take longer turns, use discourse marke

24、rs and open and close conversations; ----appreciate and be able to produce contextualised written texts in a variety of genres; ----be able to use cohesive devices in reading and writing texts; ----be able to cope with authentic texts. Strategic competence Teachers need to enable learners

25、----to take risks in using the language; ----to use a range of communicative strategies; ----to learn the language needed to engage in some of these strategies, e.g. ‘What do you call a thing that/person who…’ Fluency Teachers need to help learners -----deal with the information gap of real

26、 discourse; -----process language and respond appropriately with a degree of ease; 精選文檔 -----be able to respond with reasonable speed in ‘real time”. 3. What is communicative language teaching? Communicative language teaching began in Britain in the 1960s as a replacement to Situational Langu

27、age Teaching. This was partly in response to Chomsky's criticisms of structural theories of language and partly based on the theories of British functional linguistics, as well as American sociolinguists. The goal of communicative language approaches is to create a realistic context for language ac

28、quisition in the classroom. The focus is on functional language usage and the ability to learners to express their own ideas, feelings, attitudes, desires and needs. Open ended questioning and problem-solving activities and exchanges of personal information are utilized as the primary means of comm

29、unication. Students usually work with authentic materials in small groups on communication activities, during which they receive practice in negotiating meaning. This method is learner-centered and emphasizes communication and real-life situations. The role of the instructor in CLT is quite differe

30、nt from traditional teaching methods. In the traditional classroom, the teacher is in charge and "controls" the learning. In CLT the teacher serves as more of a facilitator, allowing students to be in charge of their own learning. 4. Principles in communicative language teaching Communication prin

31、ciple: Activities that involve real communication promote learning. Task principle: Activities in which language is used for carrying out meaningful tasks promote learning. Meaningfulness principle: Language that is meaningful to the learning supports the learning process. 5. Strong version and w

32、eek version A weak version: Learners first acquire language as a structural system and then learn how to use it in communication. It regards overt teaching of language forms and functions as necessary means for helping learners to develop the ability to use them for communication. A strong ver

33、sion: Strong version: The strong version claims that ‘language is acquire through communication’. Learners discover the structural system in the process of learning how to communicate. It regards experiences of using the language as the main means or necessary conditions for learning a language

34、 as they provide the experience for learners to see how language is used in communication. 5. List some of the communicative activities. 1) Functional communicative activities Identifying pictures Discovering identical pairs Discovering sequence or locations Discovering missing information 精

35、選文檔 Discovering missing features Discovering “secrets” Communicating patterns and pictures Communicative models Discovering differences Following directions Reconstructing story-sequences Pooling information to solve a problem 2) Social interaction activities Role-playing through cued di

36、alogues Role-playing through cues and information Role-playing through situation and goals Role-playing through debate and discussion Large-scale simulation activities improvisation 6. Main features communicative activities 7. The Task-based Approach A task-based approach sees the langua

37、ge process as one of learning through doing. It stresses the importance to combine form-focused teaching with communication-focused teaching. The task-based approach aims at providing opportunities for the learners to experiment with and explore both spoken and written language through learning act

38、ivities which are designed to engage learners in the authentic, practical and functional use of language for meaningful purposes. Task -based Learning offers an alternative for language teachers. In a task-based lesson the teacher doesn't pre-determine what language will be studied, the lesson is b

39、ased around the completion of a central task and the language studied is determined by what happens as the students complete it. 精選文檔 So it aims to provide learners with a natural context for language use．As learners work to complete a task，they have abundant opportunity to interact．Such interac

40、tion is thought to facilitate language acquisition as learners have to work to understand each other and to express their own meaning．By so doing，they have to check to see if they have comprehended correctly and，at times， they have to seek clarification． By interacting with others，they get to liste

41、n to language which may be beyond their present ability，but which may be assimilated into their knowledge of the target language for use at a later time． Task presented in the form of a problem-solving negotiation between knowledge that the learner holds and new knowledge 7. What is a task? An

42、y one of the following definitions is ok: A task is “a piece of work undertaken for oneself or for others, freely or for some reward. Thus examples of tasks include painting a fence, dressing a child. In other words, by ‘task’ is meant the hundred and one things people do in everyday life, at work,

43、 at play and in between”. -------- Long (1985) [A task is] an activity which require learners to arrive at an outcome from given information through some process of thought, and which allows teachers to control and reg

44、ulate that process. ------ Prabhu (1987) … a piece of classroom work which involve learners in comprehending, manipulating, producing or interacting in the target language while their attention is principally focused on meaning rather than on form. ----Nunan (1989)

45、 Tasks are always activities where the target language is used by the learner for a communicative purpose (goal) in order to achieve an outcome.” A task is an activity in which students use the target language to do something, usually with a non-linguisti

46、c purpose. 8. A task is believed to have four components: a purpose, a context, a process, and a product. 9. What is PPP model? In this model, a language classroom consists of three stages: Presentation of new language item in a context---controlled practice (drilling, repetition, dialogue readin

47、g, etc)---production of the language in a meaningful way (a role-play, a drama, an interview, etc.) 10. A task-based language classroom consists of three stages. They are pre-task stage, the stage of task cycle, and the stage of language focus. Unit 3 1. The overall language ability required i

48、n the 2001 National English Curriculum includes the following aspects language knowledge, language skills, learning strategies, affects and cultural understanding. 精選文檔 2. What is a syllabus? A syllabus is a specification of what takes place in the classroom, which usually contains the aims and

49、 contents of teaching and sometimes contains suggestions of methodology. 3. What is curriculum? A curriculum, however, provides (1) general statements about the rationale about language, language learning and language teaching, (2) detailed specification of aims, objectives and targets learning pu

50、rpose, and (3) implementations of a program. In some sense, a syllabus is part of a curriculum. Syllabus is often used to refer to something similar to a language teaching approach, whereas curriculum refers to a specific document of a language program developed for a particular country or region.

51、 4. Designing principles for the National English Curriculum 1) Aim for educating all students, and emphasize quality-oriented education. The English curriculum aims education for all students and stresses quality-oriented education. The new standards particularly show concerns over students’ af

52、fective needs as well as other learning needs in order to stimulate their interests in learning, help them experience the sense of success, and gain self-confidence in learning. Its overall objective is to develop students’ comprehensive abilities in using the language and to improve their cultural

53、quality, to develop their practical skills, as well as to cultivate their creative spirit. 2) Promote learner-centeredness, and respect individual differences. Students’ overall development is the motivation and goal of the English curriculum. Therefore, its objective, the teaching process, the as

54、sessment procedures as well as the development of teaching resources should all reflect the principle of learner-centered approach. Classroom teaching should become a process during which students are guided by the teachers in constructing knowledge, developing skills, being active in thinking, demo

55、nstrating personal characters, developing intelligence and broadening their views and visions. Teaching should take full consideration of students’ individual differences in learning process and their learning styles and teaching should be flexible in using teaching methods, resources and ways of as

56、sessment so as to make teaching beneficial to all kinds of students. 3. Develop competence-based objectives, and allow flexibility and adaptability. The overall aim of the curriculum or nine-year compulsory education is to develop students’ comprehensive abilities in language use. Such abilities a

57、re grounded in the development of language skills, language knowledge, affects, cultural awareness and learning strategies. The English curriculum for nine-year compulsory education together with the related senior high school English curriculum divide the English teaching objectives into nine level

58、s. Each level is described in terms of what students can do with the language. It is thus designed to reflect the progressive nature of students’ language development during the process of school education so as to ensure the integrity, flexibility and openness of the curriculum. 精選文檔 4) Pay clo

59、se attention to the learning process, and advocate experiential learning and participation. Modern foreign language teaching emphasizes the learning process and advocates the use of different teaching approaches and methods for the purpose of facilitating students’ language development. During th

60、e process of learning English in nine-year compulsory education, students should be encouraged to discover rules of the language, master gradually language knowledge and skills, constantly monitor the affective demands, develop effective learning strategies and autonomous learning abilities by means

61、 of experiencing, practicing, participating, exploring and cooperating under the teacher’s guidance. 5. Attach particular importance to formative assessment, and give special attention to the development of competence. The assessment for the nine-year compulsory education should be geared to stimu

62、lating students’ interests and cultivating their autonomy in learning. The system should include both formative and summative assessment with formative assessment playing a primary role, paying special attention to students’ language performance and achievements during the learning process. Assess

63、ment should be made facilitative to developing students’ interests and self-confidence in learning. Summative assessment should focus on assessing students’ overall language ability and the ability to use the language. Assessment should function positively for students to develop language abilities

64、and healthy personalities; for teachers to improve their teaching qualities and for the development and improvement of the English curriculum. 6. Optimize learning resources, and maximize opportunities for learning and using the language. English curriculum requires that teachers should properly u

65、tilize and develop teaching resources so as to provide rich and healthy resources that are practical, lively, updated for students’ learning. Teachers should make full use of various resources such as videos, television programs, books, magazines and the Internet so as to expand the opportunities

66、for students to learn and use the language. Also teachers should encourage students to take part in exploring and utilizing resources for learning. Unit 4. Lesson Planning 1. What is lesson planning? Lesson planning means making decisions in advance about what aims to be achieved, materials to be covered, activities to be organized, and techniques, resources to be used in order to achieve the aims of the lesson. 2. Principles for good lesson planning include: Aim, Variety, Flexibility, Lea