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Resource Economics and Environmental Economics,資源經(jīng)濟(jì)與環(huán)境經(jīng)濟(jì),partⅠ,contents,Three themes: Efficiency, Optimality and Sustainability Fundamental Issues in the Economic Approach to Resource and Environmental Issues Property Rights and Externalities Property Rights, Externalities, and Environmental Problems: Improper Rights and Imperfect Market Property Rights, Externalities, and Environmental Problems: Government Role and the Pursuit of Efficiency Introduction to Land Economics: Scope and Content Concepts of Land Economics Land Resources Supply and Demand The Valuation and Use of Land Farmland Preservation,Three Themes: Efficiency Optimality Sustainability,The three themes of the natural resource and environmental economics are efficiency, optimality and sustainability. It is often argued that much energy is produced or used inefficiently, and that if different techniques were employed significant resource savings could be gained with no loss in terms of final output.(通常認(rèn)為很多能源在生產(chǎn)或使用中缺乏效率，而如果能夠采用不同的技術(shù)，那么就可在最終產(chǎn)出不變的情況下顯著地節(jié)約能源。),Resources are used in technically efficient ways,For example, suppose that electricity can be, in technically efficient ways, generated by the burning of either some heavily polluting fossil fuel. Because of a lower price for the former fuel , it is chosen by profit-maximizing electricity producers.(比如，假定能采用技術(shù)有效的方法來(lái)發(fā)電，如通過(guò)燃燒某種重污染的化石燃料。化石燃料由于價(jià)格低廉而為以追求利潤(rùn)最大化的發(fā)電廠所青睞。),,,,If this happens there is an inefficiency that results from resource allocation choices even where there are no technical inefficiencies.(如果污染造成了損失， 那么即使采用了高效的技術(shù)，資源配置也會(huì)存在無(wú)效現(xiàn)象。) Such allocative inefficiencies will be pervasive in the use of natural and environmental resources in pure market economies. A substantial part of environmental economics is concerned with how economies might avoid inefficiencies in the allocation and use of natural and environmental resources.(在純粹市場(chǎng)經(jīng)濟(jì)情況下，這種低效配置也會(huì)普遍存在于自然和環(huán)境資源的利用中。環(huán)境經(jīng)濟(jì)學(xué)的一個(gè)基本內(nèi)容就是研究如何避免自然和環(huán)境資源配置和利用中效率低下的問(wèn)題。),,Then a resource-use choice is socially optimal if it maximizes that objective given any relevant constraints that may be operating.(如果在相關(guān)約束既定不變的情況下能夠?qū)崿F(xiàn)目標(biāo)的最大化，那么資源利用的選擇將達(dá)到社會(huì)最優(yōu)。) That is, efficiency is a necessary condition for optimality. However , efficiency is not a sufficient condition for optimality.,,This arises because there will almost always be a multiplicity of different resource allocations, but only one of those will be ‘best’ from a social point of view.(原因就在于資源有效配置的方式有多種，而從社會(huì)的觀點(diǎn)來(lái)看，只有一種是最好的。) The pursuit of optimality as usually considered in economics will not necessarily take adequate care of posterity.(追求通常在經(jīng)濟(jì)學(xué)里所關(guān)心的優(yōu)化不一定是為子孫后代著想。),Fundamental Issues in Economic Approach to Resources and Environmental Issues,Welfare economics,It attempts to identify circumstances under which it can be claimed that one allocation of resources is better(in some sense) than another. This is the modern,and rigorous,version of Adam Smith’s story about the benign influence of the invisible hand.,Environmental economics,The problem of pollution is a major concern of environtal economics. Environmental economics is also concerned with the natural environment as a source of recreational 修養(yǎng)的and amenity 宜人的services,which role for the environment can be analyzed using concepts and methods similar to those used in looking at pollution problems.,Ecological economics,Economics and ecology were seen as the two disciplines most directly concerned with what was seen as the central problem-sustainability. It could be said that ecology is the study of nature’s housekeeping,while economics is the study of human housekeeping.,Property Rights and Externalities,產(chǎn)權(quán)和外部影響性,The meaning of external influences 外部影響的含義,External influence is a subject of his economic activity in which the economic environment. The impact of external causes between private and social costs or private benefits and social benefits of inconsistencies between, can easily lead to market failure.(外部影響指一個(gè)經(jīng)濟(jì)活動(dòng)的主體對(duì)他所處的經(jīng)濟(jì)環(huán)境的影響。外部性的影響會(huì)造成私人成本和社會(huì)成本之間，或私人收益和社會(huì)收益之間的不一致，因此容易造成市場(chǎng)失靈。),,The impact of external direction and role of the results has two sides, can be divided into external economies and external diseconomies. Those who can bring the community and other individuals to make social and personal gains or to reduce costs as externalities external economies, it is beneficial to the individual or social externalities; that can lead to social and personal costs or lead to other benefits reduce externalities as external diseconomies, it is a personal or social disadvantage. (外部性的影響方向和作用結(jié)果具有兩面性，可以分為外部經(jīng)濟(jì)和外部不經(jīng)濟(jì)。那些能為社會(huì)和其他個(gè)人帶來(lái)收益或能使社會(huì)和個(gè)人降低成本支出的外部性稱為外部經(jīng)濟(jì)，它是對(duì)個(gè)人或社會(huì)有利的外部性；那些能夠引起社會(huì)和其他個(gè)人成本增加或?qū)е率找鏈p少的外部性稱為外部不經(jīng)濟(jì)，它是對(duì)個(gè)人或社會(huì)不利的。),,Concrete can be divided into: external economic production, consumption, external economies, the external diseconomies of production and consumption of the external diseconomies.(具體可以分為：生產(chǎn)的外部經(jīng)濟(jì)、消費(fèi)的外部經(jīng)濟(jì)、生產(chǎn)的外部不經(jīng)濟(jì)和消費(fèi)的外部不經(jīng)濟(jì)。),External influences and inappropriate allocation of resources,The existence of external effects caused by a serious consequence: the lack of market efficiency in resource allocation. In other words, even assuming that the economy is still perfectly competitive, but because of the existence of external influences, the whole economy of resource allocation can not be Pareto optimal state. “Invisible hand“ in the role of external influences have lost before.,外部影響與資源配置失當(dāng),外部性影響的存在造成了一個(gè)嚴(yán)重后果：市場(chǎng)對(duì)資源的配置缺乏效率。換句話說(shuō)，即使假定整個(gè)經(jīng)濟(jì)仍然是完全競(jìng)爭(zhēng)的，但由于存在著外部影響，整個(gè)經(jīng)濟(jì)的資源配置也不可能達(dá)到帕累托最優(yōu)狀態(tài)。“看不見(jiàn)的手”在外部影響面前失去了作用。,The external impacts of policies,(1) the use of tax and allowances (2) the use of the combined companys approach (3) the use of property rights approach,有關(guān)外部影響的對(duì)策,(1)使用稅收與津貼 (2)使用合并企業(yè)的方法 (3)使用財(cái)產(chǎn)權(quán)的方法,Property rights,externalities,and environmental problems:improper rights and imperfect market.,產(chǎn)權(quán)，外部效應(yīng)，和環(huán)境問(wèn)題： 不合理的產(chǎn)權(quán)和不完善的市場(chǎng),Improperly designed property rights systems,Other property rights regimes Private property is, of course, not the only possible way of defining entitlements to resources use. Other possibilities include state-property regimes, common-property regimes,res nullius regimes（in which no one owns or exercises control over the resources）.,私有產(chǎn)權(quán)，當(dāng)然不是唯一可能的方式界定權(quán)利資源的使用。其他可能性包括國(guó)有產(chǎn)權(quán)制度，共同產(chǎn)權(quán)制度，雷斯紐利斯產(chǎn)權(quán)制度(沒(méi)有人擁有或行使對(duì)資源的控制)。,設(shè)計(jì)不合理的產(chǎn)權(quán)制度,其他產(chǎn)權(quán)制度,State-property regimes exist not only in former communist countries, but also to varying degrees in virtually all countries of the world. Parks and forests,for example,are frequently owned and managed by the government in capitalist as well as int socialist nations. Problems with both efficiency and sustainability can arise in state-property regimes when the incertives of bureaucrats who implement and make the rules for resource use diverge from colletive interests.,國(guó)家知識(shí)產(chǎn)權(quán)制度不僅存在于前共產(chǎn)主義國(guó)家，但也不同程度在世界上幾乎所有的國(guó)家。例如，公園和森林，經(jīng)常國(guó)有及由政府管理的資本主義以及INT社會(huì)主義國(guó)家。當(dāng)官僚主義者不能從集體利益出發(fā)去執(zhí)行或制定資源利用的政策時(shí)，效率和可持續(xù)的問(wèn)題同樣可能出現(xiàn)在國(guó)有資源管理制度下。,Common-property resources are those that are owned in common rather than privately. Common-property regimes exhibit varying degrees of efficiency and sustainability,depending on the rules which emerge from coooective decision making. While some very successful examples of common-property regimes exist,unsuccessful examples are even more common.,共有產(chǎn)權(quán)制度是指資源被集體所有而不是個(gè)人。共有產(chǎn)權(quán)制度表現(xiàn)出的效率和可持續(xù)性程度因集體決策制定的規(guī)則不同而不同，在實(shí)行共有產(chǎn)權(quán)制度的例子中，成功者有之，失敗者更不在少數(shù)。,Res unllius property resources can be exploited on a first-come,first served basis,because no individual or group has the legal power to restrict access. Open-access resources,as we shall henceforth call them,have given rise to what has become known popularly as the “tragedy of the commons”. The problems created by open-access resources can be illustrated by recalling the fate of the American bison.,在雷斯紐利斯產(chǎn)權(quán)制度下，因?yàn)闆](méi)有任何個(gè)人或團(tuán)體有權(quán)限制他人進(jìn)入，因此資源的利用遵循先來(lái)先得的規(guī)則。開(kāi)放獲取資源，我們今后應(yīng)叫他們，已普遍被稱為“公地悲劇”。開(kāi)放存取資源所造成的問(wèn)題，可以通過(guò)回顧美洲野牛的命運(yùn)證明。,Imperfect market structure,Environmental problems also occur when one of the participants in an exchange of property rights is able to exercise an inordinate amount of power over the outcome. This can occur,for example,when a product is sold by a single seller,or monopoly that violate our definition of efficiency.,不合理的市場(chǎng)機(jī)制。 當(dāng)參與產(chǎn)權(quán)交易的一方可對(duì)交易的最后結(jié)果施加過(guò)分強(qiáng)大的影響時(shí)，環(huán)境問(wèn)題也同樣會(huì)產(chǎn)生。這可能發(fā)生，例如，當(dāng)一個(gè)產(chǎn)品是由一個(gè)單一的賣方，或壟斷銷售。而壟斷銷售違背了我們對(duì)于效率的定義。,,Property Rights, Externalities, and Environmental Problem: Government Role and the Pursuit of Efficiency,Government failure,Market processes are not the only sources of inefficiency. Political processes are fully as culpable. Some environmental problems have arisen from a failure of political rather than economic institutions. To complete our study of the ability of institutions to allocate environmental resources, we must understand this source of inefficiency as well.,政府失靈,市場(chǎng)過(guò)程并不是低效率的唯一來(lái)源，政治過(guò)程也完全應(yīng)該受到責(zé)備。一些環(huán)境問(wèn)題的起因來(lái)自政治因素而不是經(jīng)濟(jì)制度的失敗。要完成我們關(guān)于制度分配自然資源的能力的研究,我們必須要理解這個(gè)低效率的來(lái)源。,Government failure shares with market failure the characteristic that improper incentives are the root of the problem. Special interest groups use the political process to engage in what has become known as rent seeking. Rent seeking is the use of resources in lobbying and other activities directed at securing protective legislation.,政府失靈與市場(chǎng)失靈的動(dòng)機(jī)不正當(dāng)?shù)奶攸c(diǎn)是問(wèn)題的根源。特殊利益集團(tuán)使用政治手段來(lái)進(jìn)行眾所周知的尋租。尋租是指利用資源去游說(shuō)官員或搞一些其他活動(dòng)，以獲得立法保護(hù)。,The pursuit of efficiency,We have seen that environmental problems arise when property rights are ill defined. When these rights are exchanged under something other than competitive conditions, and when social and private discount rates diverge. We can now use our definition efficiency to explore possible remedies, such as private negotiation, judicial remedies, and regulation by the legislative and executive branches of government.,追求效率,我們已經(jīng)發(fā)現(xiàn), 環(huán)境問(wèn)題在產(chǎn)權(quán)定義不清晰時(shí)，當(dāng)這些權(quán)利在其他條件下而不是在競(jìng)爭(zhēng)條件下交換時(shí),當(dāng)社會(huì)和私人的折現(xiàn)率出現(xiàn)分歧時(shí)才會(huì)出現(xiàn)。我們現(xiàn)在可以使用我們對(duì)效率的定義去探索可能的補(bǔ)救措施,如私人談判、司法補(bǔ)救,監(jiān)管立法和政府行政部門。,Introduction to Land Economica:Scope and Content,土地經(jīng)濟(jì)學(xué)導(dǎo)論：范圍和內(nèi)容,,Land economics deals with the economic relationships people have with others respecting land 土地經(jīng)濟(jì)學(xué)不研究人與人之間因?yàn)橥恋囟鸬慕?jīng)濟(jì)關(guān)系有科學(xué)。 it is always concerned with problems and situations in which land,its use,or its control are regarded as factors of strategic or limiting importance. 它總是和土地利用或被當(dāng)作戰(zhàn)略和重要限制因素加以控制的問(wèn)題和情況有關(guān)。,Land economics:a branch of political economy 土地經(jīng)濟(jì)學(xué)：政治經(jīng)濟(jì)的分枝,Land economics is an applied branch of economics 土地經(jīng)濟(jì)學(xué)是應(yīng)用經(jīng)濟(jì)學(xué)的一個(gè)分支 Land economists often step beyond the bounds of economics to operate as social science land specialists in the broader field of political economy 在更廣泛的政治經(jīng)濟(jì)領(lǐng)域，土地經(jīng)濟(jì)學(xué)家把自己作為社會(huì)科學(xué)的土地專家而經(jīng)常超越經(jīng)濟(jì)學(xué)范疇,Threefold framework affecting land use,Threefold framework involves,Technological and economic considerations,Institutional arrangements,3,Physical and biological factors,1,2,物理和生物因素,技術(shù)和經(jīng)濟(jì)方面的考慮,制度安排,三部分的關(guān)系,These three frameworks set the stages on which man’s use of land takes place at any given time.Each framework has its own special impacts on landuse programs and policies ,and each can be examined separately. 這三個(gè)框架作用于人類利用土地的任何特定時(shí)間，每個(gè)框架在土地利用的計(jì)劃和政策上都有自己的特定影響，并且每個(gè)都可以單獨(dú)測(cè)定。 In the real world,the three frameworks are interlinked and work together.They do not operate independently of one another;nor ar they applied in a one-two-three sequence. 在現(xiàn)實(shí)世界中，這三個(gè)框架是相互聯(lián)系、共同工作。他們既不是相互獨(dú)立地發(fā)生作用，也不是按照第一、第二、第三的順序依次發(fā)生作用。,Concepts of land Economics,Now, land economics has been tools of analysis. At this part, emphasis is given to three basic ideas.,現(xiàn)在，土地經(jīng)濟(jì)學(xué)已經(jīng)成為了一個(gè)重要的分析工具，在這里，重點(diǎn)給出三個(gè)基本觀點(diǎn),1.The economic concept of land and land resources 2.A classification of land uses by type 3.The concept of land use-capacity,一、The economic concept of land and land resources,The economic of land include the question about finger of land、land use、distribution of land etc revenue Economic relations and issues of economic theory 土地經(jīng)濟(jì)是指土地制度、土地利用、土地收益分配等方面的經(jīng)濟(jì)關(guān)系及經(jīng)濟(jì)理論問(wèn)題,二、A classification of land uses by type,,3.The concept of land use-capacity,What is the land use-capacity? 什么是土地利用潛能？ How to make the land have the highest use-capacity? 怎樣充分發(fā)揮土地利用潛能？,Land Resources Supply and Demand,Discussions of the adequacy of our land resource base call for frequent use of the terms supply and demand.（討論對(duì)于我們適當(dāng)?shù)耐恋刭Y源基礎(chǔ)需要大量了解供需關(guān)系） Throughout our discussion we will follow popular usage（用法） in speaking of supply as the quantity of goods or resources available for use and of demand as the amounts of a commodity（貨物） people want and are willing to buy.,When we speak of the physical supply（土地的自然供給） of land,we are concerned with the physical existence of resources. The economic supply of land involves only that portion of total physical supply that people want and use. The concept of demand is analogous to（類似于） that of suppy. As a physical concept,demand is associated with desires,needs,and wants for commodities and services.,,Look at this Figure. The line of SS^ is supply curve. The line of DD^ is demanf curve. When the price occurs at P ,the quantity of product offered and the quantity buyers are willing to purchase are equal.,Under real market conditions,supply and demand fanctors tend to follow the model of the perfect market.（在只有市場(chǎng)條件下，供給和需求是完全市場(chǎng)） The amount of any given land resources supplied or demanded are usually responsive to price changes but in most situations,supply and demand reponses tend to be inelastic.（土地資源的供需量對(duì)價(jià)格一般是有反應(yīng)的，但是，在大多數(shù)市場(chǎng)條件下，供需的價(jià)格反應(yīng)是無(wú)彈性的）,The valuation and use of land,Land use and valuation was an important concern in the early decades of modern economices, beginning in the late eighteenth century．In a sense, the study of land economics was the beginning of the economics of natural resources . land is clearly an important input factor into many economic activities-agriculture and forestry; residential, commercial, and industrial uses; and mineral exploration. it also supports an enormous variety of ecosystems. Land ownership was also for many centuries the key to personal wealth and social power. Our focus is on the economic principles surrounding the efficient use of land as a natural resource, the determination of the value of land, an how different types of ownership of land affects land use and value.,,從十八世紀(jì)晚期直到最近幾十年土地使用和土地評(píng)估被特別重視，在某種意義上，土地經(jīng)濟(jì)的研究是研究自然資源經(jīng)濟(jì)學(xué)基礎(chǔ)和開(kāi)端。顯然土地是投入到許多經(jīng)濟(jì)活動(dòng)（農(nóng)業(yè)和林業(yè)；住宅，商業(yè)和工業(yè)，以及礦產(chǎn)勘查）中的重要成分。它也是自然界中各種生態(tài)系統(tǒng)的基礎(chǔ)。數(shù)百年來(lái)，土地所有權(quán)也是個(gè)人財(cái)富和社會(huì)權(quán)利的關(guān)鍵象征。我們重點(diǎn)關(guān)注土地作為自然資源之一是怎樣被有效理由的經(jīng)濟(jì)原理、決定土地價(jià)值的經(jīng)濟(jì)原理以及不同的土地所有權(quán)關(guān)系是怎樣影響土地的利用和土地價(jià)值的經(jīng)營(yíng)原理等。,The analysis of land,Land is fairly complicated to analyze because it is heterogeneous both in terms of intrinsic fertility(physical properties) and also in terms of its relative accessibility-its location .In each case, our primary concern is to show land is used efficiently and how the value of land is determined. As we will see, we can distinguish many natural resources by differences in their ownership arrangements. The different property rights will also have implications for the need for government policy. We also examine the relationship between land values and location. Land and all natural resources are heterogeneous not just because of differences in their physical characteristics, but because they differ in their location from markets using the resource, We uncover some general principles about the relationship between land use, land value. and location,,對(duì)土地的分析是相當(dāng)復(fù)雜的，因?yàn)閺耐恋氐膬?nèi)在肥力（自然特性）和相對(duì)通達(dá)性來(lái)說(shuō)，土地是異質(zhì)的。在每一種情況下，我們主要關(guān)心的是指土地使用效率和土地的價(jià)值。正如我們將看到，我們可以通過(guò)所有權(quán)安排來(lái)區(qū)分許多自然資源。不同的產(chǎn)權(quán)關(guān)系對(duì)政府而言也有不同的政策啟示。我們考察土地的價(jià)值和位置的關(guān)系。所有的土地和自然資源的異質(zhì)性不僅是因?yàn)椴煌奈锢硖匦?，同時(shí)市場(chǎng)對(duì)資源的應(yīng)用的不同位置也會(huì)讓他們變得不同。我們發(fā)現(xiàn)一些土地利用土地價(jià)值和位置之間的關(guān)系的原則。,,,Farmland Preservation,,Introduction,Many states have adopted a variety of farmland presetvation measures that inhibit urban development.,,Arguments: Threats to national food security; the “unproductive”characteu of housing compared with “productive”agricluture; the risk of more environmentaldegradation from prsticides if a smaller agricultural land stock is used more intensively;,There are many arguments on the other side:,Land’s highest and best use ta urban boundaries can change from rural to urban;when it does,elementary models of land use show that markets will reallocate that land to its most valued use. 城市邊緣區(qū)土地最優(yōu)最佳利用原則將農(nóng)村用地變?yōu)槌鞘杏玫?，隨著該原則的實(shí)行，土地利用變化的基本模式顯示出市場(chǎng)能將土地配置給最佳用途。,Food,resources,and people,The proportion of the labor force engaged in agricluture has fallen dramatically Contrary to popular impression,food production per capita has been increasing for the half-century since World War Ⅱ,the only decades for which we have acceptable data. 與大眾的印象相反，自第二次世界大戰(zhàn)以來(lái)的半個(gè)世紀(jì)，也就是我們能夠收集到滿意的數(shù)據(jù)資料的數(shù)十年，人均占有的食物量一直在不斷地增加。,,Land economics,Land economics shows that free exchange within a systerm of private rights leads to dfficient resource allocation. 土地經(jīng)濟(jì)學(xué)認(rèn)為在私有產(chǎn)權(quán)條件下的自由交易可導(dǎo)致資源的有效配置。,Clonclusions,A key institution in this success story is the market mechanism which,in turn,rests on the foundation of laws and property rights. 在這一系列成功的制度與政策中，最關(guān)鍵的是依賴市場(chǎng)機(jī)制，而市場(chǎng)機(jī)制有依賴與產(chǎn)權(quán)制度及其基本原理。,,,